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are increased, comparatively with pristine and thermal treated, as a consequence of the oxygen-vacancies formation in the structure of titanium dioxide. A specific discharge capacity of around 11 Ah/L with a 66.1% of energy efficiency was observed after 100 cycles of charge/discharge at high current densities rates up to 150mA/cm2. In addition, significantly improved the electrolyte-utilization ratio to 87% was achieved using 1 M in vanadium solution. Afterwards, the performance of 2 M vanadium ion concentrations has been evaluated at high current density up to 300 mA/cm2 during 140- cycles, showing the great durability of the battery. Particularly, at 200 mA/cm2 the CE value was > 96%, electrolyte-utilization ratio was 80%, with a specific capacity of 22 Ah/L, demonstrating the total suppression of HER and long term stability of VRFB. These results (Table 6.3) suggest that the TiO2:H based graphite felt is a powerful electrocatalyst for high-performance VRFB application. Table 6.3- Efficiency and electrolyte utilization ratio as a function of several variables as electrode, electrolyte concentration and current density applied. Negative electrode cycle /number Electrolyte concentration /M Current density / mAcm-2 Electrolyte- utilization ratio / % CE / % VE / % GF-P GF@TiO2 GF@TiO2:H GF@TiO2:H GF@TiO2:H GF@TiO2:H GF@TiO2:H 6.1.3 1 1 124 1 130 1 104 2 109 2 140 1 EE/ % 95.0 58.0 25 82 98.8 90.0 89.0 90.0 90.6 55.6 71.2 66.1 96.0 64.0 61.4 200 77 97.0 69.0 67.6 300 63 97.5 56.7 55.5 250 60 96.0 55.6 53.6 300 40 96.7 49.5 47.8 25 94 92.0 95.0 87.7 1 1 25 64 61.0 GF@TiO2:H 1 1 25 93 98.9 91.0 GF@TiO2:H 120 2 25 100 96.4 94.0 GF@TiO2 28 1 125 48 96.3 57.7 GF@TiO2:H 28 1 125 86 99.1 71.9 GF@TiO2:H 96 1 150 83 99.3 66.6 GF@TiO2:H 101 2 200 80 Nitrided titanium dioxide (TiO2-N) In this section, an enhanced catalyst applied to all-vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) has been developed. It is made of a structural porous carbon felt covered by TiO2 rutile phase, which is nitrided using ammonia annealing at high- temperature (900oC). Consequently, a synergetic effect of N- and O- functionalization over carbon felt (CF) and partially formed TiN (metallic conductor) phase onto the TiO2 decorating electrode’s structure shows an outstanding charge and mass transfer over the electrode-electrolyte interface. In this case, carbon felt (CF) is used instead of graphite felt (GF) as a raw material due to the lower graphitization grade of CF, which will help having a larger initial surface functionalization and reducing synthesis cost. However, CF has a lower conductivity and heavier weight comparatively to GF. Moreover, this material (CF@TiO2:N) has 106PDF Image | Redox Flow Batteries Vanadium to Earth Quinones
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