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Study of redox flow battery systems for residential applications 1.2 Redox flow batteries Over the past few years, several different battery technologies were invented. Nowadays, the most used types of batteries are the lithium-ion (Li-ion) and sodium sulphur (NaS) due to their high energy density with application such as portable devices and vehicles for Li-ion batteries and support electric grid for NaS batteries [2]. In 2014, these technologies together had more than 600 MW installed capacity worldwide for grid support [12]. However, there are other type of batteries that are more suitable for certain applications than the previous ones (Appendix A.4, Table A.2). Flow batteries (Appendix A.5, Figure A.5) differentiate from solid-state conventional batteries because the amount of energy stored only depends on the volume of electrolyte, the power is only dependent on stack size and it has higher lifetime [13]. At the same time, flow batteries still deliver low energy densities (Appendix A.2, Table A.1); however, several studies have been conducted to increase it [14] . A redox flow battery (RFB) is made of one or more electrochemical cells (ECC), each one made of two half-cells, organized in a stack. Each electrochemical cell comprehends two electrodes, one at each half-cell (positive and negative), and an ion exchange membrane (IEM) and each half-cell is supplied with a different electrolyte. The electrolyte is normally made of an aqueous solution containing the redox pairs involved in the electrochemical reaction and the electrolyte itself for increasing the ionic conductivity. At the electrodes’ surface the electrochemical reactions take place and electrons flow to or out the interface electrode/electrolyte. Furthermore, the IEM is used to separate the two half cells; it allows ions to permeate preventing electricity and reactants to cross [14, 15]. This device stores electricity as electrochemical energy through reversible redox reactions. The charging process occurs when a power supply is used to provide electrical energy to be stored in the electrolyte. During charge, the electrolyte on positive side is oxidized, releasing electrons through the external circuit to the negative half-cell, while the electrolyte on the negative side is reduced by using the received electrons, and during discharge, when an electrical load is used to consume electrical energy previously stored in the battery, the electrolyte on positive side is reduced while the electrolyte on the negative side is oxidized [14, 15]. There are several RFB electrolytes and technologies that are currently being investigated, though polysulphide bromide (PSB), zinc-bromine (ZnBr) and vanadium batteries are the most developed so far. Typical performances and costs of these batteries can be found in Appendix A.5, Table A.3. Chapter 1: Introduction 4PDF Image | Tubular Vanadium Air Redox‐flow battery
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