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Sustainability 2018, 10, 191 5 of 32 Table 2. List of selected solid–liquid materials for sensible heat storage [25]. Medium Fluid Type Density (kg/m3) Specific Heat (J/(kg·K)) 800 5 of 32 879 840 880 820 896 837 Temperature Range (◦C) 20 1555 SustainaSbainlidty 2018, 10, 191 Rock - - Organic liquid - 20 2560 20 1600 Brick - Concrete - 20 2240 Granite - 20 2640 Aluminium Cast iron 20 2707 Isotunaol Organic liquid ≤100 808 3000 2200 2400 Isopentanol Organic liquid ≤148 831 Octane ≤126 704 - TWaabteler 3 shows the -main characteristic0s–1o0f0the most common10ly00used solid-state th41e9r0mal storage 20 7900 Calorie HT43 Oil 12–260 867 2200 materials [17], including sand-rock minerals, concrete, fire bricks, and ferroalloy materials. These Engine oil Oil ≤160 888 1880 materials have working temperatures from 200 to 1200 °C and have excellent thermal Ethanol Organic liquid ≤78 790 2400 condPurocptiavnieties: 1.0OrWga/n(imc l·iKqu)i–d7.0 W/(m·K) ≤fo9r7 sand-rock minera80ls0, concrete, and fi2r5e00bricks; 37.0 Butane Organic liquid ≤118 809 2400 W/(m·K)–40.0 W/(m·K) for ferroalloy materials. The materials shown in Table 3 are all low-cost, Isotunaol Organic liquid ≤100 808 3000 ranging from 0.05 to 5.00 $/kg. The only disadvantage is their heat capacities being rather low, Isopentanol Organic liquid ≤148 831 2200 rangiOncgtafnreom 0.56Otorg1a.n3ickliJq/(ukidg°C), which c≤a1n26make the storage u7n0i4t unrealistically lar2g4e00. Reinforced concrete 200–400 2200 1.5 37.0 7.0 40.0 1.5 5.0 Reinforced concrete 200–400 2200 1.5 Cast iron 200–400 7200 Cast iron 200–400 7200 37.0 NaCl 200–500 2160 Taabblele33..SSoolildid--ssttaatteesseennssibiblelehheeaattsstotorraaggeemaateterriaialsls[1[177].]. Storage Materials Storage Materials Sand-rock minerals Working Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3) Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Working Temperature (◦C) Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat 200–300 1700 (W/(m·K)) 1.0 1.30 0.85 0.56 0.85 0.60 1.00 1.15 Density (kg/m3) (W/(m K)) (kJ/(kg°C)) (kJ/(kg·◦C)) Sand-rock minerals 200–300 1700 1.0 1.30 0.85 0.56 0.85 0.60 1.00 1.15 Cast steel 200–700 7800 NaCl 200–500 2160 7.0 Cast steel 200–700 7800 40.0 Silica fire bricks 200–700 1820 Silica fire bricks 200–700 1820 1.5 Magnesia fire bricks 200–1200 3000 Magnesia fire bricks 200–1200 3000 5.0 3.1. Water Tank Storage 3.1. Water Tank Storage The most common material used in a sensible heat storage system is water. The use of The most common material used in a sensible heat storage system is water. The use of hot-water hot-water tanks is a well-known technology for thermal energy storage [26]. Hot-water tanks serve tanks is a well-known technology for thermal energy storage [26]. Hot-water tanks serve the purpose the purpose of energy saving in water heating systems via solar energy and via co-generation (i.e., of energy saving in water heating systems via solar energy and via co-generation (i.e., heat and heat and power) energy supply systems. State-of the-art projects [27] have shown that water tank power) energy supply systems. State-of the-art projects [27] have shown that water tank storage is a storage is a cost-effective storage option and that its efficiency can be further improved by ensuring cost-effective storage option and that its efficiency can be further improved by ensuring optimal water optimal water stratification in the tank and highly effective thermal insulation. Today’s research stratification in the tank and highly effective thermal insulation. Today’s research and development and development (R&D) activities focus, for example, on evacuated super-insulation with a thermal (R&D) activities focus, for example, on evacuated super-insulation with a thermal conductivity of conductivity of 0.01 W/(m·K) at 90 °C and 0.1 mbar and on an optimized system integration. A 0.01 W/(m·K) at 90 ◦C and 0.1 mbar and on an optimized system integration. A typical system in typical system in which a water tank is used is shown in Figure 3. which a water tank is used is shown in Figure 3. Fiigurree33..Attypiiccallssysstteemussiingwaatteerrttaankssttorraagee[[44]].. The energy storage capacity of a water (or other liquid) storage unit at uniform temperature The energy storage capacity of a water (or other liquid) storage unit at uniform temperature (i.e., (i.e., fully mixed or no stratified) operating over a finite temperature difference is given by Equation fully mixed or no stratified) operating over a finite temperature difference is given by Equation (1) (1) redefined as redefined as Q = mc ∆t (2) Q mct ss ppss (2) where Qs is the total heat capacity for a cycle operating through the temperature range ∆ts, and m and cp are the mass and the specific heat, respectively, of water in the unit. The temperature range over which such a unit can operate is limited at the lower extreme for most applications by the requirements of the process. The upper limit may be determined by the process, the vapor pressurePDF Image | Comprehensive Review of Thermal Energy Storage
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