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ADVANCED LEAD-ACID AND LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES Lead-acid batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable battery and one of the least expensive energy storage devices currently available, in terms of capital cost ($/kWh). However, the short cycle life and significant maintenance requirements of traditional lead-acid batteries leads to a high lifecycle cost ($/kWh/cycle), limiting their use for commercial and large-scale operations. To improve traditional lead-acid batteries while maintaining their low system cost, energy storage developers added carbon-enhanced electrodes to create advanced lead-carbon batteries. These batteries were originally developed as an inexpensive power option for hybrid electric vehicles; adding enhanced carbon electrodes elevates the value of these technologies for grid-scale storage by extending system life and enhancing the performance of the batteries in both power and energy management grid applications. CURRENT PERCEIVED LIMITATIONS OF ADVANCED LEAD-ACID AND LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES Challenges involving cycle life, maintenance requirements, specific energy, and high-voltage operation must be addressed before advanced lead-carbon batteries can realize their full potential for use in grid-scale power and energy management applications. The gaps and limitations that, if overcome, could make the most significant advances toward this end goal include the following: n TODAY’S LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES HAVE A SHORT CYCLE LIFE. While lead-carbon batteries have a higher cycle life than traditional lead-acid batteries, the number of lifetime cycles is still significantly lower than grid storage applications require. n LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES REQUIRE SIGNIFICANT MAINTENANCE. The maintenance requirements of lead-carbon batteries increase the operational costs of the systems and limit the lifetime of the technology. The lifetime of these devices is also significantly shortened if they are not located in an air-conditioned environment. n THE SPECIFIC ENERGY OF LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES IS LIMITED BY INSUFFICIENT MATERIALS UTILIZATION. The theoretical specific energy of lead-carbon batteries is 166 watt-hours per kilogram (including the weight of sulfuric acid and assuming 2 volts per cell). However, the current specific energy of these devices is only 30–55 watt-hours per kilogram, which is 67%–80% lower than the actual potential of these technologies. Since the weight of these devices can result in increased building costs in response to load-bearing issues, more advanced carbon materials or other higher-rate materials are needed to help advanced lead-carbon batteries achieve a specific energy that is closer to their theoretical potential. n THE BATTERY SYSTEMS OPERATE AT HIGH VOLTAGES, INCREASING DESIGN REQUIREMENTS. The large systems that are required for lead-based, grid-scale energy storage operate at high voltages, increasing the possibility of ground faults. Such faults can lead to system damage or, in extreme events, fires. Addressing this risk requires careful system design, which could potentially include bipolar designs. ADVANCED LEAD-ACID AND LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES 17PDF Image | Devices for Stationary Electrical Energy Storage Applications
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