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PRIORITY ACTIVITIES TO ADVANCE LEAD-ACID AND LEAD-CARBON BATTERIES With targeted research and development, lead-carbon batteries have the potential to contribute to the advancement of grid-scale energy storage in both power and energy management applications. Lead-carbon batteries can serve as a promising intermediate solution that can be deployed in the near term as newer technologies are being developed and improved. There are a variety of activities and initiatives that could help overcome the current gaps and limitations of these technologies in areas such as electrolyte advances, electrode development, diagnostics and modeling, and technology demonstration and validation. These solutions aim to optimize the effectiveness and increase the value of energy storage devices by increasing the energy density and efficiency of these devices. For lead-carbon batteries, activities and initiatives can accelerate progress in the following areas: n ELECTROLYTE ADVANCES – Exploring the use of electrolyte additives and acid mixing can help to address the performance of lead-carbon batteries related to acid stratification. n ELECTRODE DEVELOPMENT – Developing high-energy carbon electrodes can help to increase the energy density of lead-carbon batteries to a level that is suitable for grid-scale operation. Further research of natural carbon electrodes, as opposed to nanoelectrodes, can help to keep down the cost of lead-carbon batteries, maintaining their cost- competitiveness in comparison to other energy storage technologies. n DIAGNOSTICS AND MODELING – Modeling could help device developers gain an understanding of why the current battery design has a specific energy well below the theoretical specific energy of lead. Once this issue is better understood, energy storage device experts may be able to increase the specific energy of lead-carbon batteries, making them more attractive options for grid-scale storage. n TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATION AND VALIDATION – Testing and demonstrating lead-carbon batteries can help to validate technology lifetime, ramp rates, and other performance characteristics that need to be proven to encourage stakeholder buy-in. The success of these activities and initiatives will require significant support from DOE. To help DOE better focus its resources over time, Figure 3 divides the solutions by the time frame in which they will impact the market: near term (less than 5 years), mid term (5–10 years), and long term (10–20 years). The bolded activities are high-priority initiatives. LEAD-CARBON BATTERY STACKS AT EAST PENN MANUFACTURING PLANT; DOE FUNDING FROM THE AMERICAN RECOVERY AND REINVESTMENT ACT 18 ADVANCED MATERIALS AND DEVICES FOR STATIONARY ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE APPLICATIONSPDF Image | Devices for Stationary Electrical Energy Storage Applications
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