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n SYSTEM MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ARE COSTLY. The manufacturing processes of high-temperature casing materials are costly and not easily automated. n EMERGING SODIUM-ION BATTERIES ARE LIMITED BY THE AVAILABILITY OF MATERIALS. These materials need to be able to achieve the desired system capacity and allow for facile sodium ion insertion/deinsertion. COST TARGETS OF SODIUM BATTERIES Over time, better materials utilization can reduce the cost of sodium batteries. Based on current knowledge of sodium batteries, the following installed cost targets (set for everything needed up to direct current output to the converter) reflect the push and pull of the energy storage market: n Current: $3,000/kW n 2020: $2,000/kW n 2030: $1,500/kW The following range of lifecycle costs could also help achieve system targets: n Current: $0.04–$0.75/kWh/cycle n 2020: $0.01–$0.27/kWh/cycle n 2030: $0.01–$0.08/kWh/cycle PRIORITY ACTIVITIES TO ADVANCE SODIUM BATTERIES With targeted research and development, sodium batteries have the potential to contribute to the advancement of widespread grid-scale energy storage. There are a variety of activities and initiatives that could help overcome the current gaps and limitations of sodium batteries in areas such as electrochemical combinations, system construction, and pilot-scale testing. For sodium batteries, activities and initiatives can accelerate progress in the following areas: n MODIFICATION OF ELECTRODE CHEMISTRIES AND OPTIMIZATION OF INTERFACES – The performance of sodium batteries is largely determined by interfaces and minor chemistries at the cathode side. The ceramic electrolyte often does not demonstrate a satisfactory wetting property to the molten sodium. Surface treatment and interfaces are required to enhance electrical contact to decrease resistance. Minor additions, such as a second electrolyte in the cathodes, have to be optimized to maximize the battery performance. Using surface-science techniques to identify and understand impurities on sodium battery anodes and cathodes can increase the cost-effectiveness and reliability of sodium batteries. Increased understanding of battery degradation modes can help to increase the tolerance of system components to impurities, extending system life. n NEW SOLID SODIUM-ION CONDUCTING ELECTROLYTE – Beta alumina is the only mature sodium-ion conducting membrane, and Nasicon has been investigated for potential use as a membrane. Discovery of a new solid-state electrolyte that can demonstrate satisfactory sodium-ion conductivity and other required properties can lead to the development of more cost-effective devices that allow satisfactory operation at reduced temperatures. 26 ADVANCED MATERIALS AND DEVICES FOR STATIONARY ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE APPLICATIONSPDF Image | Devices for Stationary Electrical Energy Storage Applications
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