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Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23 Materials 2022, 15, 2946 after the tests. The main attractive property of SiC and Carbo is their very high absorptiv- ity, which is around or over 0.9, while for the sand it is around 0.4. However, the abun- dance of sand makes it cheaper than SiC and Carbo by 4–5 times. Furthermore, sand’s lower density permits its particles to be transported/fluidized with lower pumping costs. transported/fluidized with lower pumping costs. mentally benign TES medium in CSP or other high-temperature systems. Silica sand or Silica sand or similar mineral particulates can be an inexpensive, stable, and environ- other similar suitable particulates are stable well above 1000 °C, while common nitrate mentally benign TES medium in CSP or other high-temperature systems. Silica sand or salts begin to decompose at 600 °C or lower, and typical organic fluids cannot be used 4 of 20 SiC and Carbo by 4–5 times. Furthermore, sand’s lower density permits its particles to be Silica sand or similar mineral particulates can be an inexpensive, stable, and environ- other similar suitable particulates are stable well above 1000 ◦C, while common nitrate salts much above 400 °C. Heat transfer to and from a static bulk solid usually results in consid- begin to decompose at 600 ◦C or lower, and typical organic fluids cannot be used much erable temperature degradation. However, the development of an efficient exchanger that above 400 ◦C. Heat transfer to and from a static bulk solid usually results in considerable handles flowing sand in general counterflow to the collection or working fluid will greatly temperature degradation. However, the development of an efficient exchanger that handles reduce this degradation. Indeed, our recently completed project sponsored by the US De- flowing sand in general counterflow to the collection or working fluid will greatly reduce partment of Energy showed that sand can be used as both a heat-collection and TES me- this degradation. Indeed, our recently completed project sponsored by the US Department dium in a CSP system by heating the sand directly in a particle heating receiver (PHR) of Energy showed that sand can be used as both a heat-collection and TES medium in a system [29]. CSP system by heating the sand directly in a particle heating receiver (PHR) system [29]. Preparations are underway to implement the improved modified concept in a pre- Preparations are underway to implement the improved modified concept in a pre- commercial integrated PHR–gas turbine system with a 1.3 MWe rated capacity and six commercial integrated PHR–gas turbine system with a 1.3 MWe rated capacity and six hours hours of thermal energy storage, making the incident thermal power of the PHR on the of thermal energy storage, making the incident thermal power of the PHR on the order order of 7 MWth with an operating temperature of 1200 °C [30]. Such temperature dura- of 7 MWth with an operating temperature of 1200 ◦C [30]. Such temperature durability bility and reliability of HTMs is very important. Three natural and low-cost materials were and reliability of HTMs is very important. Three natural and low-cost materials were studied; namely white sand, red sand, ilmenite, and one engineered particulate material studied; namely white sand, red sand, ilmenite, and one engineered particulate material called Carbobead CP. This work was a continuation study of a TES system that was built called Carbobead CP. This work was a continuation study of a TES system that was built at at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia [31–45]. With this work, we have extended King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia [31–45]. With this work, we have extended our ongoing efforts in experimentation and modeling various options to enhance the heat our ongoing efforts in experimentation and modeling various options to enhance the transfer to or from sand or other particulates. The effect of aging on the particulate mate- heat transfer to or from sand or other particulates. The effect of aging on the particulate rials, optical properties, and thermophysical properties were studied. The results of this materials, optical properties, and thermophysical properties were studied. The results of study could lead to a major reduction in the critical costs of a promising TES concept. this study could lead to a major reduction in the critical costs of a promising TES concept. 2. Selection of Particulate Materials 2. Selection of Particulate Materials The key enabling technology in this study was the particle heating receiver (PHR), The key enabling technology in this study was the particle heating receiver (PHR), since it has potentially very high efffiiciency, can achieve higher temperatures than any other competing technology, and can be built cost-effectively.. An integral part of the PHR subsystem is the particulate material that is fed through it to be heated by concentrated sunlight.TThhisismmataetreirailanleneedesdtsotsotrsiktreiktheetrhieghrtigbhatlabnacleanbceetwbeetnw:e(ean) c:o(sat), (cbo)sot,p(tbic)aolprtiocpa-l pertoiepse,ratineds,(ac)nadv(aci)labvialitlyabinilitthyeilnocthalemloacraklemt.aTrhkreete. Tdihfrfereednitfnfearteunrtanl antudralolcanldpalortciacluplatre- mticautleartiealms a(Rteiyriadlsh(Rreiygaiodnh):rewghioitne):sawnhdit(eWsaSn),dre(Wd Ssa),nrded(RsaSn),da(nRdS)i,lmanedniitlem; eanidteo; naendenognie- neneegrinedeepreadrtipcaurltaitceumlataetemriatle: rCialr:bCoabrebaodbCeaPd, wCeP,rewceornesciodnesreide.rEerdr.oFr!igRuerfe1resnhcoewsos usarcmepnloest foofuthnedf.osuhrowmsatsearmiaplsl.es of the four materials. (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 1. Candidate particulate materials: (a) Riyadh white sand; (b) Riyadh red sand; (c) ilmenite; Figure 1. Candidate particulate materials: (a) Riyadh white sand; (b) Riyadh red sand; (c) ilmenite; (d) Carbobead CP. (d) Carbobead CP. All samples were cleaned and dried to ensure that: (a) the samples were free from All samples were cleaned and dried to ensure that: (a) the samples were free from contamination, and (b) the particle sizes were within the recommended size range in the contamination, and (b) the particle sizes were within the recommended size range in the real operation, such that the important system components were not clogged with large real operation, such that the important system components were not clogged with large particles. The particulates then were sifted using a vibrator sieve machine (ETA Vibro Screen) available at King Saud University, while the Carbobead CP was supplied with a standard and uniform particle size. Two meshes sizes were used in the sifting process (40 and 70), such that the particles were passed from 40 mesh (which only allowed particlesPDF Image | Low-Cost Particulates Used as Energy Storage and Heat-Transfer Medium
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