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Materials 2022, 15, 2946 5 of 20 smaller than 425 microns to pass) and stopped at 70 mesh (which did not allow particles larger than 212 microns to pass). After sifting with the 40/70-mesh sieve, the particle sizes were 210–400 μm. The engineered ceramic particles were from CARBO Industrial Technologies(Houston, TX 77041, USA). Carbobeads are engineered particles with a high shape uniformity (sphericity of 0.9), whereas the other particulate materials’ grains typically had an irregular shape. Table 1 qualitatively describes the merits of each of the materials. Table 1. Characterization of candidate particulate materials. Material Average Particle Diameter (μm) Shape Cost (per kg) Optical Properties (As Received) Local Availability Specific Heat * (kJ/kg◦C) Chemical Composition * White Sand 210 to 425 Irregular USD 0.03 to USD 0.05 Low Widely available - Red Sand 210 to 425 Irregular USD 0.03 to USD 0.05 Low Widely available - Ilmenite 210 to 425 Irregular USD 0.03 to USD 0.07 High Widely available - Carbobead CP 300 Regular $1 High Not available cp= 0.365 T0.18 50 ◦C ≤ T ≤ 1100 ◦C In order to achieve this study’s objectives, the experimental work was conducted on selected particulate materials to be used as heat-transfer media in the obstructed flow PHR. The candidate particulates were tested “as received” and after cyclic heating for a certain duration of time. Details on how the experiments were done are presented in the following sections. 3. Methodology 3.1. Sustainability Test at High Temperatures (Aging Test) In this part, aging tests were performed on the candidate particulate materials in order to simulate the cyclic heating that particulates encounter under the operating conditions in particle-based CSP systems. These tests aimed to investigate the aging effect on the optical, mechanical, and thermophysical properties. The tests were conducted at 800, 1000, and 1200 ◦C. These temperatures were the designed operating temperatures in such systems. Each particulate material type was divided into four samples, and the first sample was kept untreated and used as a reference. The other three samples were put in the ceramic crucibles and heated in the Muffel electric furnace (Hindustan Thermostatics, Haryana, India) to 800, 1000, and 1200 ◦C in an air environment for 6 h at a heating rate of 10 ◦C/minute, then left to cool down to room temperature. The agglomeration behaviors of the particulate materials was the first sign used to select which particulate would be subjected to cyclic heating later. The samples of each material, which were initially heated to 1200 ◦C and did not show any sign of agglomeration, were reheated to 1200 ◦C for 8 h and then left to cool down to room temperature. The last process of heating to 1200 ◦C for 8 h and cooling down to room temperature was continued until 500 h of cyclic loading was achieved. These tests simulated an extreme case of a “6 h” storage system. 3.2. Elemental Analysis It is important to investigate the effect of cyclic heating on changes in optical ap- pearance and color problems, adhesiveness, and bonding by verifying the chemical com- position of the particulate materials. Identification of the cause of the agglomeration - * Specific heat and chemical composition of the Carbobead CP was measured at Sandia National Laboratories using a differential scanning calorimetry technique [46]. - - 75% Al2O3, 11% SiO2, 9% Fe2O3, 3% TiO2, and 2% othersPDF Image | Low-Cost Particulates Used as Energy Storage and Heat-Transfer Medium
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