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Table 4: Main objectives for technological innovation of TES with CSP Attribute Sensible Latent Thermochemical 2018 2030 2050 2018 2030 2050 2018 2030 2050 Cost (USD/kWh) 25-30 < 15 < 12 25-90 25-35 < 12 Research level Pilot scale, 80-160 Demon- stration, <80 Efficiency (%) >90 >92 >95 >90 >92 >95 40-50 (1) Energy density (kWh/m3) 70-200 (2) 30-85 800-1200 Lifetime (years or cycles) < 10 000 > 10 000 3 000- 5 000 4 000- 5 000 5 000- 10 000 < 100 500- 1 000 > 1 000- 3 000 Working temperature (°C) < 565 600- 700 > 700 < 600 600- 750 700- 850 500-900 500- 1 000 Notes: (1) Value not available due to low technology readiness level; (2) Value dependent on the material selection. Expected and targeted innovation requirements for such materials are listed in Table 4. These are influenced by the US Department of Energy’s SunShot programme, which focuses on encouraging innovation in molten-salt material science. The key objective of this programme is to reduce the cost and corrosiveness of the molten salts, but also to explore the potential for other types of thermal storage for CSP applications. Solid-state concrete storage could offer a cheaper alternative to molten salts for CSP applications, as concrete as a raw material is inexpensive. Furthermore, concrete storage operates at almost ambient pressure, thus no pressure vessels are needed, reducing capital costs further. Moreover, it benefits from good mechanical properties, and is non-toxic, inert and non-flammable. In a typical concrete TES system, pipes are embedded in a concrete block to exchange heat between the block and a heat transfer fluid. Unfortunately the lifetime of these assets is currently limited due to their maximum working temperatures, and spalling at high temperature, which causes cracks after repeated cycles of thermal expansion and contraction (Alva et al., 2017). Lifetimes are expected to improve through R&D activities (Table 4). Two projects are being developed in China that will use solid-state formulated concrete as its thermal storage device, as part of a wider deployment of 20 CSP demonstration projects in the country (Kost, 2017). Solar energy harnessed using CSP could also be stored as chemical energy through the endothermic oxidation reaction in a chemical looping system, in which solar energy is stored for later release through a chemical reaction (Pardo et al., 2014). Calcium carbonate is the thermochemical material of choice due to its high energy density (4400 megajoules per m3 (MJ/m3)) and operating temperature (800-900°C) (Prieto et al., 2016). This high operating temperature enables the development of next-generation high-efficiency solar energy conversion systems. Research is underway studying several configurations to investigate the benefits of integrating chemical looping with CSP (Alovisio et al., 2017). In 2015, 5 GW of CSP capacity was installed globally, but this number could to grow to 309 GW by 2050 provided that ambitious policy frameworks are implemented (IRENA, 2020a). Based on this assumption, and CSP requiring thermal storage with a ~8-hour storage period, there could be a market demand for 633 GW/2 472 GWh of thermal storage for CSP by 2050. 74 INNOVATION OUTLOOKPDF Image | THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE Outlook
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