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LAES is a developing technology that can provide similar services to CAES, but is comparatively less geographically constrained. A LAES demonstration project has been completed in the United Kingdom, and commercial projects are in development in North America (Sampson, 2018). The developer, a UK-based company, has claimed that their modular solution can achieve a levelised cost of storage of USD 140/MWh for a 200 MW plant with a 10-hour duration. Both LAES and CAES can store large amounts of energy at a low cost when compared to conventional Li-ion batteries, but with slower response times. Both technologies can be installed at the transmission or distribution level to overcome network constraints, reduce renewables curtailment, defer the need for network reinforcement, and also provide other ancillary services such as black start. In the current market, LAES and CAES can be used to create revenue through energy arbitrage (selling energy stored at off-peak times when energy demand is high), but this does not currently generate sufficient value to recoup the capital investment. A limitation of LAES is the speed at which it can be switched on to access these markets. LAES is able to respond within ~30 seconds if operated in SpinGen mode, enabling the provision of some frequency regulation services, but cannot respond at the sub-second level achieved by electrochemical storage. However, the world’s first hybrid flywheel, supercapacitor and LAES system is in development, seeking to tap into higher value markets including the UK National Grid’s enhanced frequency response and firm frequency response (Holder, 2017). Molten salts are also being proposed for novel forms of stand-alone bulk thermal storage systems known as Carnot batteries. For example, there are concepts being developed in Germany that combine a molten-salt storage asset with the infrastructure from an existing (and decommissioned) coal plant. Excess power is converted using a heat pump and then stored as heat, before being converted back to power using the turbine from the coal plant. However, the steam cycle in coal plants has efficiency limits of about 40%. To tackle this constraint, a US project has developed novel turbine and heat exchanger equipment that could raise the efficiency to about 60% (SolarPACES, 2019). This project looks to use a four-tank system, with two sets of hot storage for the molten salt and cold storage for the coolant. Utilising four tanks allows operation over a broader temperature range, which in turn increases the power and efficiency of the overall thermal storage device (Freund, 2019). Concepts for a 10 MW/80 MWh and 100 MW/1 000 MWh system have been developed; however, it is likely to be several years before the first pilot is constructed. 3.2 Industry Heat demand in energy-intensive industry will be difficult to decarbonise; TES can help The wider industrial sector is responsible for a third of global emissions and is the second-largest emitter of energy-related CO2. The industrial sector uses more delivered energy than any other end-use sector, and does so in several ways: • Generating process heat (hot water, steam and direct heat applications) at various temperature levels on- site by burning fuels. • Generating electricity and process heat on-site via a co-generation plant. • Importing process heat from a district heat network. • Importing electricity from the grid. • Generating electricity and/or process heat using solar PV and/or solar thermal plants. On-site process heat production accounts for 74% of total industrial energy use. Process heat can be classified into three types of heat: low-temperature heat (below 150°C), medium-temperature heat (150-400°C) and high-temperature heat (above 400°C). Industry is the biggest laggard in the integration of renewables, with only 14% of final energy consumption in the sector from renewable sources. The majority of renewable heat today is from biomass, and the solar thermal capacity installed in the industrial sector worldwide is small (< 1 gigawatt thermal [GWth]), and is restricted to low-temperature heat production as shown in Table 6. 76 INNOVATION OUTLOOKPDF Image | THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE Outlook
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