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Figure 45. Commercial readiness of TES technologies for district heating and cooling. Sensible Latent Absorption systems1,2 Salt hydration1,2 Thermo- chemical Mechanical- thermal Sub-zero PCMs2 Solid state N/A High-temperature PCMs1 UTES1,2 TTES1,2 Ice2 Applied research Prototype Demonstration Commercial Notes: (1) For district heating; (2) For district cooling. Current status Large water tanks are utilised regularly in district heating. They consist of well-insulated systems, with reduced heat losses and an extended effective storage period. The water is heated up during periods of off- peak electrical demand or using solar collectors. When the heat is required the storage is discharged. These large-scale water tanks can be located above or below ground, depending on the needs of the scheme. Chilled water tanks are the most common thermal storage option for district cooling, using large concrete and steel tanks with reported volumes in this application of up to 150 000 m3 (Somarriba, n.d.). In these systems, excess solar energy from periods of high irradiation can be used to cool down the water, for example using an absorption chiller (Hasnain, 1998; BEIS, 2016). UTES technologies are also deployed in conjunction with heat grids to integrate low marginal cost heat sources, such as geothermal and solar thermal heat, for seasonal storage. Heat can be stored at temperatures up to 100°C, with heat being upgraded for use by heat pumps. For district cooling, UTES usually works with a temperature difference of around 6°C. Ice has been widely used as a cool TES material due to its high latent heat of fusion. It is produced by electricity from renewable sources, or a solar absorption process to freeze water to ice. The heat transfer fluid (commonly water or glycol) transfers the cold energy though pipelines to supply cooling to residential blocks or office buildings. THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE 93 Type of TESPDF Image | THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE Outlook
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