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Table 10. Key objectives for technological innovation of TES for district heating and cooling Attribute Sensible Latent Thermochemical 2018 2030 2050 2018 2030 2050 2018 2030 2050 Cost (USD/kWh) 0.1-35 0.1-25 0.1-15 60-230 45-185 35-140 15-150 Pilot scale 15-120 Demon- stration 10-80 Efficiency (%) 55-90 65-90 75-90 > 90 > 92 > 95 50-65 (1) Energy density (kWh/m3) 15-80 (2) 30-90 120-250 Lifetime (years or cycles) 10-30 years 20-30 years > 30 years 10-20 years > 25 years > 30 years 15-20 years 20-25 > 30 Operating temperature (°C) 5-95 5 to > 95 0 to up to 750 15-150 Notes: (1) Value not available due to low technology readiness level; (2) Depends on working temperature range. Furthermore, there is a need for research on hybrid UTES systems to increase capacity, efficiency and alignment with renewable heat production technologies. Optimised control of UTES is also required to improve energy savings and reduce the use of back-up systems (European Association for Storage of Energy and European Energy Research Alliance, 2017b). Considerable gains are to be had in TTES by increasing the size of the tanks and improving system standardisation. The cost of TTES can be reduced from USD 486/m3 for a 300 m3 hot-water tank, toUSD 123/m3 for a 12000 m3 hot-water tank (BEIS, 2016). System efficiency improvements are anticipated, perhaps through new approaches to increase and maintain stratification. This would reduce running costs. Thermal stratification can lead to longer operating hours and thus a significantly greater utilisation of solar collectors, thereby reducing the use and cost of auxiliary energy. Recent developments propose new methods to increase stratification, such as minimising the mixing and turbulence of water entering a stratified thermal storage tank (Al-Habaibeh, Shakmak and Fanshawe, 2017). These improvements could result in storage efficiency being increased by significant margins, between 6% and 20% (Han, Wang and Dai, 2009). Other improvements are also being sought, such as optimisation of the internal heat exchanger and the internal free convection in water tanks, as well as through minimising the heat losses due to parasitic heat convection in pipes. Latent The innovation needs of high-temperature cPCMs focus on improving thermal cycling stability, corrosion and structural instability that can cause leakage of the PCM. Further research on novel composites and systems is needed to make this technology fully competitive. The performance of system cycling and the overall system over time must be analysed prior to further commercialisation, to ensure adequate system lifespans. The main focus of innovation is on novel integration systems that improve the charging/ discharging rate, and materials science research to improve component compatibility and reduce maintenance costs. These innovations would bring this technology from demonstration level to commercial stage at larger capacities. In sub-zero temperature PCMs, a primary technical challenge of the currently utilised salt mixtures is phase segregation13 during the charging and discharging processes. These systems can also be prone to supercooling14 and corrosion. 13 Theeffectthatphaseswithdifferentcomponentsareseparatedfromeachother,andcausealossinenthalpyofsolidification. 14 The effect whereby the temperature is lower than melting point, but the material does not start to solidify. 96 INNOVATION OUTLOOKPDF Image | THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE Outlook
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