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These factors currently reduce the cyclability performance and increase the maintenance cost of the system. Different strategies have been proposed to overcome these problems, such as adding cross-linked material to keep the salt in solution or adding a material to increase its viscosity (Li et al., 2013). However, most of the solutions are at lab-bench testing stage in terms of development and there is no best approach for all of them. To avoid or minimise the corrosion of the container, a selection process has to be carried out and in some cases encapsulation or coatings must be used (Ferrer et al., 2015). Similar to the other PCMs, the heat transfer rate is limited during the charging and discharging process due to the moving liquid-solid boundary and the low thermal conductivity. The heat transfer rate can be improved by increasing the heat transfer area (e.g. using metal fins) and adding high thermal conductivity material additives (e.g. graphite, particles) (Oró et al., 2012). Ice formation during the charging process is the key challenge for ice storage, which may affect the system’s performance by decreasing the charging rate and efficiency. For instance, during the charging process of an ice-on-coil thermal storage system, the ice starts to grow from the surface of the coil and the charging efficiency decreases due to the low thermal conductivity of the growing ice itself. Different approaches are proposed to tackle this issue, such as adding fins or rings to the coil. The performance can also be optimised by applying different operation strategies, e.g. a full storage strategy and partial storage strategy (Yau and Rismanchi, 2012). Thermochemical High investment costs are currently impeding development of thermochemical TES for district heating/cooling. There are also issues associated with the corrosiveness of the chemicals used, and concerns from potential adopters regarding the safety of the systems given their relative complexities. The seasonal storage capacity of thermochemical TES systems makes these potentially very attractive options for district heating and cooling applications. Significant development in materials chemistry will be required to realise the potential for these systems, however. For salt hydration systems, primary development activities focus on enhancing the activity and durability of the salts used while attempting to maintain their compatibility and safety characteristics. In absorption systems, similarly, the utility of the salts used is key, and researchers are seeking to enhance their stability and energy densities. Various configurations for coupling thermochemical TES systems with renewable generators have been proposed for district heating and cooling applications, based on salt hydration (heating) and absorption (cooling) systems. Case study 6. Transporting charged TES materials from charging site to point of demand H-DisNet The European Union “Intelligent Hybrid Thermo-Chemical District Networks” (H-DisNet) project is seeking to evaluate a particularly innovative approach to integrating thermochemical TES into district heating/cooling. The project partners are investigating a “hybrid” smart transport system for charged TES materials, in which partially hydrated/dehydrated salt solutions pumped around a distribution network can be utilised remotely to release stored thermal energy, for heating or cooling. The project involves simulation and control research to afford better management of thermochemical TES infrastructure, alongside three demonstration projects in Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom (KU Leuven, 2018). THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE 97PDF Image | THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE Outlook
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