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Figure 46. Commercial readiness of TES technologies for use in buildings WTTES Solid state Sensible Latent Thermo- chemical UTES Low-temperature PCMs High-temperature PCMs Ice Mechanical- thermal Salt hydration N/A Absorption systems Applied research Prototype Demonstration Commercial Current status Traditional water tanks for residential and commercial use have a typical water capacity between 100 and 1 000 litres (Lanahan and Tabares-Velasco, 2017). Water TTES is based on the heating or cooling of water during periods of off-peak electrical demand or excess electricity from solar collectors. The heat can later be delivered and distributed to the facility during peak periods of demand (Alva, Lin and Fang, 2018). Various examples of electric hot-water storage have been reported in countries around the world. Examples from Australia, France and New Zealand have demonstrated the capacity for this use of TES to assist with the management of local electricity network congestion by reducing residential peak demand. In 2014 a 5% annual peak reduction was achieved this way in France (IEA, 2014). Thermal energy has been stored within ceramic bricks at temperatures up to 70°C in residential storage heaters since the mid-20th century. Modern versions of these appliances, smart electric thermal storage (SETS) heaters, use a low-cost ceramic brick storage medium heated up by means of an electrical resistance at temperatures up to 700°C. SETS devices have been installed in tens of thousands of residential properties globally (European Association for Storage of Energy and European Energy Research Alliance, 2017b). Meanwhile, ice storage has recently been developed in California for residential use, aiding utilities by diminishing the “duck curve”. Devices that are based on ice storage are also commercially available throughout North America and in India, primarily envisaged for use in commercial buildings. Other low-temperature PCMs also find application in buildings. In most cases, the ice and sub-zero temperature PCMs are encapsulated in modules, with heat transfer fluid used to supply the cold from the modules to the load. These systems can be used to back up or replace refrigeration systems, or to provide air conditioning in residential or commercial buildings (European Association for Storage of Energy and European Energy Research Alliance, 2013). Focusing on heat, domestic PCM heat batteries have been trialled successfully and are commercially available in the United Kingdom. The encapsulated PCM can be charged by electrical heating or the heat exchanged through a heat transfer fluid (such as hot water from solar thermal and cold air from air conditioning). THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE 101 Type of TESPDF Image | THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE Outlook
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