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4 H. Zhang et al./Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 53 (2016) 1–40 Table 1 EASE recommended technologies [12]. Technologies in focus Pumped hydro energy storage Compressed air energy storage Electrochemical Chemical Electromagnetic energy storage, flywheels Thermal energy storage Conventional generation Suitable Suitable Possible Possible Unsuitable Suitable Renewable generation Possible Possible Possible Possible Possible Possible Transmission Suitable Suitable Suitable Possible Suitable Possible Distribution Possible Possible Suitable Unsuitable Suitable Possible Customers services Unsuitable Unsuitable Suitable Possible Unsuitable Suitable Fig. 2. LCOE for different renewable energies and MW electricity produced (adapted from Ref. 11). As mentioned before, there are four main goals met by energy storage. Firstly, energy storage will ensure the balance between demand and supply, especially in view of the expanding variability at the generation side. Since energy storage allows a timely and geograph- ical displacement between consumption and generation sites, it promotes the integration of renewable energy sources generation. Secondly, it is possible to manage transmission and distribu- tion grids with energy storage, confirmed to become a fundamental element of the future electricity infrastructure to stabilize the grid, even with ideal expansion of transmission capacities. Moreover, some storage technologies could be realized much faster than grid up- grades. With the current trend of electricity production and consumption being decentralized and fluctuating, storage can be used to improve generation, transportation and distribution: energy storage will allow to size grids closer to average energy flows instead of peak power requirements, whilst also resulting in reduced trans- mission losses, and improving the stability and reliability of grids with the use of storage. Thirdly, energy storage technologies will have a major role in the transition to a more efficient and sustainable energy use. This will be mainly seen in the transportation sector with the use of (hybrid) electric vehicles, but also in the emergence of intelligent build- ings and smart grids. With energy storage, it is also possible to manage electricity/heat generation and consumption on a local level, in an optimal way for the whole power system. Finally, energy storage will also contribute to a competitive and secure electricity supply. Since energy storage can provide an eco- nomically interesting alternative to grid expansion and load shedding, it will be very important in new market designs. Market mecha- nisms for flexibility and security of supply and specific storage regulation will help to establish a competitive energy storage market. Within the different types of energy storage such as electrical, thermal, mechanical, electrochemical and chemical storage, the tech- nologies recommended by the European Association for Storage of Energy (EASE) are listed in Table 1 with their actual state-of-the- art repartition: thermal, electrochemical and chemical energy storage seem most suitable or possible in different technology sections. Sensible heat storage is one of the most developed technolo- gies for thermal storage and has been used for many years in both the domestic and the industrial sector, e.g. in the form of hot water and ice storage systems, or using thermal fluid or molten salts in concentrated solar tower technology. Sensible heat storage is indeed most commonly used for CSP plants using a two-tank storage of molten salts. For low temperature applications (<40 °C), under- ground thermal energy storage is recently gaining popularity in the European markets. For high temperature applications very few ex- amples are currently used in the process industry, despite numerous publications and research. Latent heat storage, using PCMs, is in full development. By 2015, the specific investment costs of latent heat storage, storage of in- dustrial waste heat, and improved thermal management need to be reduced below 100 €/kWh. By 2020 the specific investment cost for compact latent heat storage should be below 50 €/kWh. Towards 2030 the intention is to have industrial process heat applications with thermal energy storage [12]. Thermal–chemical energy storage applies both thermal and chemical storages, using the sensible heat of reactants and the re- action enthalpy of reversible thermo-chemical reactions. According to EASE [12], the niche applications for thermo-chemical storagePDF Image | Thermal energy storage: Recent developments
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