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36 H. Zhang et al./Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 53 (2016) 1–40 Table 29 Energy densities from SHS and LHS materials. Material Water (liquid) 60% NaNO3 – 40% KNO3 Paraffin wax SHS Specific heat (kJ/kg K) 4.2 1.5 1.92 Energy density (kJ/m3 K) 4200 3144 1593.6 LHS Melting temperature (°C) 0 223 32 Latent heat (kJ/kg) 335 105 251 Energy density (GJ/m3) 307 230 208 Table 29, where the difference of energy storage capacity of three different materials is illustrated when used as SHS (in their liquid state) and LHS (when they change from solid to liquid). Section 3 dealt with latent heat storage, specifically towards high temperature application, where inorganic substances offer a high potential. Experimental and modeling data will be compared. Since inorganic solid/liquid phase change materials suffer from a low thermal conductivity, conductive inserts offer a high potential, re- ducing the charging/discharging time by a factor of ~2. Section 4 reviewed the fundamentals of using reversible chem- ical reactions to store heat for short to long term storage. Within the selected reaction pairs, Ca(OH)2, CaCO3, Co3O4 and Mn2O3 offer a high potential, both towards achieved reaction temperature and reversibility. All reactions can be treated as first order chemical re- actions, with activation energies between 50 and 250 kJ/mol and reaction rate constants of 1 to 2 × 10−3 s−1 at reaction equilibrium temperature. Since latent and thermal chemical storage medium needs to be contained in a capsule (sphere, tube, sandwich plates) of appro- priate materials, Section 5 assessed the mechanical strength of the containment from both a theoretical and experimental evalua- tion. Alloy-capsules of 1–2 mm thickness meet the requirements of long term stability, even after charging/discharging cycles. Section 6 specifically dealt with a novel particulate HTF, con- sidered for both heat capture and storage. Since particulate suspensions deal with sensible heat storage, the paper reviews pre- vious investigation and recent experimental results. Literature and experimental data confirm the high heat transfer coefficient achieved (>400 W/m2 K in circulating fluidized beds, to >1100 W/m2 K in a dense upflow fluidized bed). A tentative technical and economic assessment demonstrates that particulate suspensions lead to major savings in investment and op- erating costs. Although sufficient fundamental and practical information on SHS/LHS and TCS is available in literature, the achievement of a high efficiency TES needs to be proven, preferably on pilot or large scale. These requirements, subjects of additionally required research, include (i) a high energy density in the storage material (storage capacity); (ii) a high heat transfer between the HTF and the con- tained storage media; (iii) a chemical and mechanical stability of the storage materials used during extensive cycles; (iv) the com- patibility between HTF, storage medium and heat exchanger; (v) the complete reversibility of the charging/discharging cycles; (vi) working at low thermal losses; (vi) ease of control, operation, and integra- tion into the proposed heat storage concept; and (vii) operation at as high a temperature as possible. According to the analysis, specific priority research targets should include (i) the further development and testing of PCMs and their charging/discharging enhancement techniques; (ii) the proof of concept of using nanoparticle-encapsulated PCMs; (iii) the further development and large-scale confirmation of TCS storage tech- niques, with special emphasis on the complete reversibility of the endothermic/exothermic cycling; (iv) the large scale testing of ap- propriate PCM/TCS containments; (v) the further development of particle suspension HTFs, possibly even using TCS powders in a cycle between a reducing (charging) and oxidation (discharging) atmo- sphere; and (vi) finally, exergy and energy analyses should be conducted to optimize a storage module: entropy generation anal- ysis is specifically important in optimizing design and operation parameters of the systems. Acknowledgements Yongqin Lv gratefully acknowledges the financial support from the special assistance of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (21306006, and 21436002), 973 programs (2014CB745103, 2013CB733603), the Xiamen Scientific and Technological project (3502Z20142012), the Public Hatching Platform for Recruited Talents of Beijing University of Chemical Technology, the High-Level Faculty Programs of Beijing University of Chemical Technology (20130805), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (YS1407). This work was also supported in Chile by the projects CONICYT/FONDAP/15110019 (SERC-CHILE), CONICYT/FONDECYT/ 1151061, by Center UAI Earth and the R&D project engineer Macarena Montané. Huili Zhang would like to express her sincere gratitude to the China Scholarship Council for sponsoring her Ph.D. study at KU Leuven in Belgium (File No. 201206880024). Jan Baeyens and Huili Zhang acknowledge EU funding under the CSP2- program (Project No. 282932). References [1] AsifM,MuneerT.Energysupply,itsdemandandsecurityissuesfordeveloped and emerging economies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2007;11:1388–413. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2005.12.004. [2] InternationalEnergyAgency.Worldenergyoutlook.2011. [3] Zhang HL, Baeyens J, Degrève J, Cacères G. Concentrated solar power plants: review and design methodology. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;22:466–81. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.01.032. [4] Zhang HL, Van Gerven T, Baeyens J, Degrève J. Photovoltaics: reviewing the European Feed-in-Tariffs and changing PV efficiencies and costs. Sci World J 2014;2014:404913. doi:10.1155/2014/404913. [5] EnergyInformationAdministration.Internationalenergyoutlook.Washington, DC: 2011. [6] InternationalEnergyAgency.Worldenergyoutlook2012.Paris,France:2012. [7] PitiéF,ZhaoCY,BaeyensJ,DegrèveJ,ZhangHL.Circulatingfluidizedbedheat recovery/storage and its potential to use coated phase-change-material (PCM) particles. Appl Energy 2013;109:505–13. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.12.048. [8] AmmarY,JoyceS,NormanR,WangY,RoskillyAP.Lowgradethermalenergy sources and uses from the process industry in the UK. Appl Energy 2012;89:3– 20. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.06.003. [9] Naish C, McCubbin I, Edberg O, Harfoot M. Outlook of energy storage technologies (Study No. IP/A/ITRE/FWC/2006-087/Lot 4/C1/SC2). 2008. [10] AstromTechnicalAdvisors,S&L.CSPtoday.CSPbenchmarkingint.,2013. [11] Bilgili M, Ozbek A, Sahin B, Kahraman A. Concentrated solar power plants: review and design methodology. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;22:466–81. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.01.032. [12] Teller O, Nicolai J-P, Lafoz M, Laing D, Tamme R, Pedersen AS, et al. Joint EASE/EERA recommendations for a European energy storage technology development roadmap towards 2030. 2013. [13] The Liquid Air Energy Network. Energy storage systems according to form of energy stored.PDF Image | Thermal energy storage: Recent developments
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