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cooling, the ground gradually warms up, and this heat will be reclaimed during the next winter cycle. The commercial sector is much more diverse than the residential sector and GCHPs have been used for heating and cooling in offices, schools, supermarkets, shopping centres, hotels, sports complexes, and institutional buildings. Heat pumps are also being used in connection with ATES systems in the commercial sector. Heat pumps are further used in connection with seasonal pit storage where they can extract additional thermal heat when the temperature in the store gradually falls below the practical temperature needed by for instance hydronic floor heating (Everett, 2000). Heat pumps combined with a facility for thermal storage can in some applications be run at an optimum state most of the time. Such a combination may also enable the heat pump to cover a higher percentage of a building's need for space heating and/or cooling. 4.10 Thermal storage and operation and automation Thermal storage installations in hybrid heating/cooling comfort systems will need quite sophisticated building energy management systems (BEMS) in order to realise their full potential. Such systems will encompass both hardware and software items. The thermal inertia of buildings is quite substantial as discussed above in connection with integrated design. It will therefore be beneficial from economic and energy conservation points of view, to develop proactive management systems with input from outdoor sensors and local weather forecasts, as well as indoor monitoring data. Using local weather forecasts has been demonstrated by various projects, among others in Sweden (Johansson, 1999). 4.11 Thermal storage and implementation strategies As discussed in the previous Section 2 Central concepts, can active thermal energy storage be used for peak shaving/shifting in electric grids and district heating systems. This has been one of the important drivers in Japan, where an increasing number of installations with ice or water tanks, natural and man-made aquifers, and building integrated PCMs are in operation. Differentiated rates for electricity and district heating have proven to be quite effective in order to encourage development and implementation of peak shifting measures (Setterwall, 2000). This can save investment in new transmission capacity for the utilities, but differentiated rates are primarily a function of the operating characteristics of generating plants based on fossil fuels. As opposed to hydroelectric plants, thermal power plants must be run on peak capacity in order to keep costs down. Differentiated rates are therefore not a relevant driver in the Norwegian market. Further, the Norwegian distribution grid is claimed to have sufficient local capacity to accommodate peak loads also in the winter, so peak shaving is of little or no economic value to the grid owners. It still remains a fact that Sweden, as opposed to Norway, has built a number of different storage facilities such as caves, pits, ducts in soil, and borehole storage, even if the Swedish utilities do not offer the consumers lower power rates during the night. 20PDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage A State-of-the-Art
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