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charge/discharge in ~30 minutes and the stored energy can last for several days with less than 2% heat loss per 24 hours for large-scale systems. Siemens Gamesa in Germany has developed a 130 MWht Electric Thermal Energy Storage (ETES) system comprises rocks stored in a building. Air is resistively heated using electricity (when price is low) and passed directly through the bed of rocks. The rocks are heated to ~600°C, and, when needed, air is passed through the hot rocks to heat steam for a Rankine power cycle. The 130 MWht demonstration plant became operational in 2019, and the company is planning a design for a 30 MW commercial pilot plant. 4.1.2. Challenges The relatively low energy density of sensible-heat storage materials requires large volumes of material for large-capacity energy storage, which increases the overall storage cost. In addition, some power cycles that employ recuperation to increase the thermal-to-electric efficiency require relatively low temperature differentials between the hot and cold states of the storage material. For example, the supercritical CO2 recompression Brayton cycle requires a temperature increase of only ~200°C in the primary heat exchanger [16]. As a result, the required mass inventory of storage material must increase to deliver the same amount of energy for a lower temperature differential, which increases costs. The target capital cost for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) CSP program is $15/kWh for the entire thermal storage system. Molten salts freeze at >200°C, which requires expensive trace heating to maintain all components at temperatures well above the freezing point. If the salt freezes, flow can be blocked, and thawing must occur before operation can begin. Stress within the large storage tanks has also caused issues at CSP plants. Thermal gradients at the base of the tank can create thermomechanical stresses that damage the tank structure. Appropriate consideration of thermomechanical stresses is critical to the design of large-scale thermal storage tanks. 4.1.3. Opportunities A number of institutions have been pursuing small, sand-like particle-based thermal storage for CSP plants and stand-alone thermal energy storage systems. Unlike the previous solid-based thermal storage systems, rather than passing air or a heat-transfer fluid through the storage media, the particles are heated directly and conveyed through a heat exchanger to heat the working fluid [8]. The particles are lifted to the top of the receiver where they are irradiated and heated by concentrated sunlight. The hot particles flow into an insulated storage tank where they can be held for hours or days. When needed, the particles are released through a particle heat exchanger to heat a working fluid that spins a turbine/generator for electricity production (Figure 5). 8PDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage Technologies
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