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Table 3. Thermophysical properties of phase-change storage materials at standard conditions, unless otherwise noted (adapted from [5]) Specific Heat (kJ/kg- Storage Medium K) Aluminum 1.2 Aluminum alloys (ex. Al- 1.5 Co0p.1p3eSria)lloys (ex.Cu-0.29Si) - Carbonate salts (ex. Li2CO3) - Nitrate salts (ex. KNO3-0.46NaNO3) Bromide salts (ex. KBr) 0.53 Chloride salts (ex. NaCI) 1.1 Fluoride salts (ex. LiF) 2.4 Lithium hydride 8.04 Hydroxide salts (ex. NaOH) 1.47 Latent or Reaction Heat (kJ/kg) Density (kg/m3) Melting Point (°C) Gravimetric Boiling Storage Point Density (°C) (kJ/kg) - 397 - 515 - 196 - 607 - 100 - 215 - 481 - 1044 - 2582 - 160 - 1800 -196 199 -183 213 Volumetric Storage Density (MJ/m3) 945 1159 1390 1335 195 516 1044 2297 2040 331 4140 161 243 Silicon Nitrogen Oxygen 1.5 0.71 1.04 0.92 397 2380 515 2250 196 7090 607 2200 100 1950 215 2400 481 2170 1044 2200 2582 790 160 2070 1800 2300 660 579 803 726 222 730 801 842 683 320 1414 Liquid/Solid Phase Change Materials Liquid/Gas Phase Change Materials 199 809 - (liquid) 213 1140 - (liquid) 4.2.1. Phase change materials (PCMs) have been encapsulated in spheres to form packed beds of encapsulated PCMs [9]. Heat-transfer fluid can be passed through the packed-bed of spheres to charge or discharge energy to/from the encapsulated PCMs. The phase change occurs at nearly isothermal conditions, so this method is useful for applications where the heat addition needs to occur at a specific temperature. At larger temperature ranges, cascaded PCM systems can be designed, but with additional complexity and cost. To date, encapsulated PCM systems have been tested and demonstrated at small scales. Commercial systems have not been demonstrated. Molten silicon systems have been developed to exploit the large heat of phase change when melting/solidifying silicon (~1800 kJ/kg). The Australian company, 1414 Degrees, has designed thermal energy storage systems ranging from 10–200 MWh, and they began operating a prototype facility in 2019. The systems melt silicon at ~1400°C and recoup the latent energy during solidification to power combined cycles. On the opposite end of the temperature scale, Highview Power has demonstrated cryogenic energy storage using “liquid air” at demonstration facilities with 2.5 kWh (300 kW peak power) and 15 MWh (5 MW peak power) of energy storage. The system operates by using electricity to cool air from ambient temperatures to -195°C using the Claude Cycle. The liquified air is stored at atmospheric pressure in large vacuum-insulated tanks. The volume occupied by the liquid air is ~1,000 times less than that of air at ambient conditions. When electricity is needed, the liquid air is pumped at high pressures through a heat exchanger that exposes the liquid air to ambient temperatures (or waste heat from an industrial heat source). The liquid air vaporizes, causing Current Implementation 11PDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage Technologies
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