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Material Advantages Drawbacks Technology Status • • • • • Low operating pressure (0–10 bar) No catalyst No side reaction (BaO/BaO2) High reversibility (500 cycles (Co3O4/CoO; 1000 cycles CaxSr1-xAlO3) Can take advantage of sensible heat to increase storage density • Cost of products • Heat transfer • Sintering • Low maturity level Ammonia Synthesis/ Dissociation • Easy to control • No side reactions • Vast industrial experience (Haber- Bosch) • Toxic • High cost of containment • Lower volumetric energy density • Higher operating pressures Pilot-scale Sulfur- Based Cycles • Cheap and commercially available • Stable storage • Energy density of 9 MJ/kg • Sulfur is a cost-effective material (< 200 €/t) • Vast industrial experience • Corrosive • Toxic • Highly protective containment is required Lab-scale Although a variety of potential TCES processes exist, no TCES system has yet been implemented on an industrial scale. Several bench-scale and pilot-scale demonstrations have been reported, several of which are described later in this chapter. A number of recent reviews also provide comprehensive explanations of these processes [13, 18, 23-25]. One of the most- developed TCES systems is the ammonia-based reaction, which has been studied for over 40 years, most notably at Australian National University (ANU). Figure 8 shows a schematic for a proposed storage system [26]. Ammonia (NH3) is dissociated on-sun into H2 and N2 gases which can be stored indefinitely in a pressurized vessel. When heat is required, the gases are reacted to re-synthesize NH3 in an exothermic process similar to the industrial Haber-Bosch process. In 1999, ANU tested a 10 kWt closed-loop solar ammonia TCES system over the course of 5 hours, demonstrating solar dissociation and re-synthesis of NH3 with storage and heat recovery [27]. In 2018, Chen et al. proposed and evaluated—using parametric modeling—an NH3 TCES system utilizing supercritical steam as a heat transfer fluid [28]. 15PDF Image | Thermal Energy Storage Technologies
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