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Table 1. Qualitative Comparison of Energy Storage Technologies Source: (Chen et al. 2009; Mongird et al. 2019a; Mongird et al. 2020) Typical Duration of Discharge at Max Power Capacity Category Technology Development Stage for Utility-Scale Grid Applications Cost Range Reaction Time Round- Trip Efficiency3 Lifetime Lithium-ion Widely commercialized 1,408-1,947 ($/kW) 352-487 ($/kWh)† Minutes to a few hours Subsecond to seconds 86-88% 10 years Electro- Chemical Batteries Flow Initial commercialization 1,995-2,438 ($/kW) 499-609 ($/kWh)† Several hours Subsecond to seconds 65%–70% 15 years Lead-acid Widely commercialized 1,520-1,792 ($/kW) 380-448 ($/kWh)† Minutes to a few hours Seconds 79-85% 12 years Sodium-sulfur Initial commercialization 2,394–5,170 ($/kW) 599–1,293 ($/kWh)†† Several hours Subsecond 77%–83% 15 years PSH Widely commercialized 1,504-2,422 ($/kW) 150-242 ($/kWh)††† Several hours to days Several Seconds to Minutes (depends on technology choice) 80+%* 40 years Compressed air energy storage (CAES) Initial commercialization 973-1,259 ($/kW) 97-126 ($/kWh)††† Several hours to days Several Minutes 52%** 30 years Flywheels Widely commercialized 1,080-2,880 ($/kW) 4,320-11,520 ($/kWh)†† Seconds to a few minutes Subsecond 86%–96% 20 years Gravity R&D stage Insufficient data Several hours Several Minutes Insufficient data Insufficient data Hydrogen production and fuel cells Pilot stage 2,793-3,488 ($/kW) 279-349 ($/kWh)†††† Several hours to months Subsecond 35% 30 years Thermal Thermal energy storage Initial commercialization 1,700-1,800 ($/kW) 20-60 ($/kWh) Several hours Several Minutes 90+% 30 years Mechanical Chemical 3 As some energy storage technologies rely on converting energy from electricity into another medium, such as heat in thermal energy storage systems or chemical energy in hydrogen, we use efficiency here to refer to the round-trip efficiency of storing and releasing electricity (electrons-to-electrons), as opposed to the efficiency of using electricity to produce heat for heating needs or hydrogen for transportation fuel needs. 3 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.PDF Image | USAID GRID-SCALE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES PRIMER
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