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2 ElectrochemicalEnergyStorageTechnologies Electrochemical storage systems use a series of reversible chemical reactions to store electricity in the form of chemical energy. Batteries are the most common form of electrochemical storage and have been deployed in power systems in both front-of-the-meter and behind-the-meter applications, as well as in electronics and transportation applications. Broadly speaking, batteries tend to have durations lasting up to several hours and can change output in the subsecond to several minutes range. Table 2. Comparison of Electrochemical Storage Technologies Source: (Fan et al. 2020; DNV GL 2016; Kintner-Meyer et al. 2010; Diaz de la Rubia et al. 2015; Mongird et al. 2020) Technology Reaction Time Round- Trip Efficiency Energy Density (Wh/kg) Power Density (W/kg) Operating Temperature (°C) Cycle Life (Cycles)** Lithium-Ion Subsecond to seconds 86-88% 210–325* 4,000– 6,500* -20–65 1,000–2,000* Flow Subsecond 65%–70% 10–50 0.5–2 5–45 12,000–14,000 Lead-Acid Seconds 79-85%% 30–50 30-50 18–45 500–1,000 Sodium-Sulfur Subsecond 77%–83% 150–240 120–160 300–350 ~4,500 *Values may vary across different cell designs, chemistries, and power electronics configurations. For operational characteristics broken down into common lithium-ion chemistries, see Table 5. **It should be noted that cycle life is intrinsically related to the behavior and environment of the storage system (e.g., some use cases can lead to lower cycle life as it stresses the storage system, and many electrochemical storage technologies perform worse or suffer shorter cycle life outside their normal operating temperature range). 6 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.PDF Image | USAID GRID-SCALE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES PRIMER
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