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the same energy needs to be met with smaller and lighter batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are also able to charge and discharge thousands of times before reaching the end of the battery pack life. The primary safety concern surrounding lithium-ion batteries is fire-risks caused by “thermal runaway.” Thermal runaway refers to a point at which the temperature inside the battery cells becomes hot enough to cause self-sustaining heat generation, which can quickly lead to battery failure or even fires (Warner 2015). Even though thermal runaway is not unique to lithium-ion, lithium tends to have a lower runaway temperature, which means thermal management and fire suppression are important factors to consider when operating lithium-ion batteries, even though they may increase overall project costs.5 Lithium-ion batteries can consist of various chemistry configurations and each chemistry exhibits slightly different operating parameters. Table 4 compares the key operating metrics for a few of the common lithium-ion chemistries (Warner 2015). Although Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) is currently the dominate chemistry, competing chemistries Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) are expected to grow in popularity over the next several decades (Figure 3). Table 4. Operating Characteristics of Select Lithium-Ion Chemistries Source: (Warner 2019; DNV GL 2016; Mongird et al. 2020) Energy Density (Wh/L) Power Density (W/L) Operating Temperature (°C) Self- Discharge (%/month) Technology Cycle Life Lithium Iron Phosphate Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum 220–250 4,500 4,000– -20 to +60 ~2,000 <1% 210–600 5,000 -20 to +60 >1,000 2%–10% Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt 325 6,500 -20 to +55 ~1,200 1% 5 Battery cell degradation that can lead to thermal runaway can begin at temperatures as low as 80°C. At 80°C, lithium ions begin to react with chemicals in the electrolyte, decomposing layers around the anode in a heat- generating reaction (exothermic) (Warner 2019). 9 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.PDF Image | USAID GRID-SCALE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES PRIMER
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