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2.2 FlowBatteryEnergyStorage Technology Summary for Policymakers Flow batteries are in the initial stages of commercialization. The technology is marked by long durations, the ability to deeply discharge its stored energy without damaging the storage system, and exceedingly long life cycles. Flow batteries may be uniquely situated for longer duration services such as load following or peaking capacity. While flow batteries have higher upfront costs than lithium-ion, their longer life cycle can lead to significantly lower lifetime costs. Flow batteries are also typically safer and are less reliant on rare materials, depending on the specific chemistry. Given flow batteries’ low energy and power density, these systems tend to be larger than other equivalent storage technologies. Flow battery energy storage is a form of electrochemical energy storage that converts the chemical energy in electro-active materials, typically stored in liquid-based electrolyte solutions, directly into electrical energy (Nguyen and Savinell 2010). There are various forms of established flow battery energy storage technologies, including redox flow batteries (RFBs) and hybrid flow batteries. RFBs, which include vanadium redox flow and polysulphide bromide flow batteries, have the electro-active material dissolved in a liquid electrolyte that is stored external to the battery. The battery charges and discharges based on redox reactions, which are chemical reactions between two electrolyte solutions at different oxidation states. The electrolytes are typically liquid-based, separated by a membrane, and stored in large tanks. Hybrid flow batteries, which include zinc-bromine and zinc-cerium flow batteries, have one of their electro-active components deposited on a solid surface, as opposed to being dissolved in a liquid electrolyte (Alotto, Guarnieri, and Moro 2014; Nguyen and Savinell 2010). The global flow battery market is dominated by vanadium RFBs, which is the most studied and commercialized flow battery type (Minke and Turek 2018; Weber et al. 2018). Zinc-bromine (Zn-Br) and polysulphide bromide flow batteries have also been widely studied with some initial commercialization but face technical and economic barriers that have stalled their commercialization. Zn-Br batteries are relatively low cost and exhibit high energy density, high design flexibility, rapid charge, and high depth of discharge capabilities, but suffer from low cycle-life, low energy efficiency, and dendrite formation, which impacts performance.7 Polysulphide bromides have rapid responses but suffer from expensive material requirements, limited energy density, relatively low efficiencies (~60%–75%), and cross- contamination concerns during long-term battery operation. These challenges currently make Zinc- bromine and polysulphide bromide more expensive and inefficient than the more established vanadium RFBs (Fan et al. 2020). In principle, flow batteries have several advantages over other electrochemical storage technologies. As the active electrolytic material is separated from the reactive electrodes in the battery, RFBs have a much higher level of safety relative to other electrochemical energy storage technologies. This separation also means that the energy and power capacity of RFBs are independently scalable and modular, with power capacity dictated by the surface area of the electrodes and the energy capacity dictated by the size of the tanks storing the electrolytic material. This flexibility in design means that RFBs can be readily configured for specific needs and applications. RFBs also have stable and durable performance, as the battery electrodes do not undergo any physical or chemical change during operation (Nguyen and Savinell 7 Dendrite formation refers to the accumulation of crystals within or on the surface of battery components, which can impact the operation, reliability, and safety of the overall energy storage system. 12 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.PDF Image | USAID GRID-SCALE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES PRIMER
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