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mediums. As CAES must switch between compression and expansion phases when charging and discharging, it is also possible that the response time for CAES plants may be slower than other technologies, which may make them less suitable for services that require rapid changes in output (Succar and Williams 2008). Luo et al. (2015) suggests that one additional barrier to CAES is its relatively low round-trip efficiency compared to alternatives such as PSH and battery technologies; however, directly comparing the efficiencies of CAES versus alternative storage technologies can be quite difficult, as CAES designs rely on two different energy inputs, electricity for the compressor when compressing/charging and fossil fuels for heating the air when expanding/discharging. Efforts have been made, however, to determine a suitable metric for CAES efficiency by attempting to convert the quantities of electricity required by the compressor, the amount of gas or other fossil fuel needed to heat the gas, and the electricity output by the system into equivalent terms (Succar and Williams 2008). 3.3.1 Current Applications CAES systems were initially developed to meet black start and peak capacity needs by storing cheap nuclear and fossil fuel-generated electricity for use during peak demand periods. Large-scale CAES could also be used in grid applications for load shifting, peak shaving, and frequency and voltage control, as well as addressing imbalances in VRE supply (Succar and Williams 2008). 3.3.2 Emerging Applications and R&D Efforts Initial research efforts in CAES partly focused on D-CAES development because it was perceived as the more commercialization-ready CAES technology, but there is a wide range of ongoing research. This includes developing aboveground and smaller-scale CAES systems, identifying other suitable geologies for air storage, developing hybrid and integrated CAES systems, and improving the overall efficiency of D-CAES systems. Other related systems designs include LAES and supercritical CAES. LAES may be classified as either a thermal energy storage system or as a CAES technology based on its expansion phase (Luo et al. 2015; Wang et. al 2017). In LAES, air is compressed and liquefied and stored in low-temperature tanks and discharged for expansion, during which time it becomes a high-pressure gas (Wang et al. 2017; Sciacovelli, Vecchi, and Ding 2017). Unlike D-CAES, LAES does not have geographic constraints and could also provide higher modularity because the component parts are independently scalable (Lin et al. 2019). There is a growing body of work on the technical performance of LAES, but more needs to be understood on its potential market value, especially in comparison to CAES and other storage technologies (Lin et al. 2019). Supercritical CAES systems integrate A-CAES and LAES designs by compressing the air to its supercritical state, using a heat exchanger to collect the compression heat with the liquefied air reheated by the heat exchanger for power generation (Luo et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2017). Other ongoing research includes identifying the suitability of geologies such as hard rock and porous rock structures for gas storage, developing hybrid and integrated CAES systems, and improving the round-trip efficiency of CAES (Luo et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2017). Utilizing such geologies could increase the technical potential for CAES in many contexts, but these geologies typically have a much higher development cost, making them uneconomical compared to other storage mediums (Succar and Williams 2008; Luo et al. 2015). There is also ongoing research into integrating thermal energy storage with CAES systems, which could improve round-trip efficiency and the economic feasibility of CAES systems (Luo et al. 2015; Sciacovelli, Vecchi, and Ding 2017). 24 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.PDF Image | USAID GRID-SCALE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES PRIMER
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