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When electricity is needed, hydrogen can either be combusted with oxygen (from the air) to generate steam or electrochemically combined in fuel cells to produce water and electricity. The combustion process can create exceedingly high temperatures (above 3,000°C), but these temperatures can be lowered through the use of catalysts, which can reduce the temperatures involved to below 500°C (Sherif et al. 2014). The combustion of hydrogen and oxygen produces only water vapor as a byproduct, and, at higher temperatures, some nitrogen oxides. Combining hydrogen and oxygen in fuel cells generates water and electricity through an electrochemical reaction (the reverse of electrolysis). While some forms of hydrogen production can see efficiencies as high as 80+%, the round-trip electrons-to-electrons efficiency of hydrogen energy storage is relatively low, in the 40%–50% range. 4.1.1 Current Applications Current applications and R&D efforts for hydrogen storage are still in their initial phases and focus primarily in the transportation sector as fuel cell electric vehicles. Other applications, including transportation purposes or for stationary energy storage, are still in testing/piloting phases. Challenges in storing and transporting hydrogen economically are limiting factors that currently impede development of larger-scale hydrogen energy storage adoption. Some turbine manufacturers have experimented with burning mixtures of natural gas and hydrogen as a means of partially decarbonizing the production of electricity from natural gas. For example, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power's (LADWP's) Intermountain Power Project in California plans to transition a natural gas plant in its territory to burn 100% hydrogen by 2045 (LADWP 2019).12 4.1.2 Emerging Applications and R&D Efforts In addition to potential applications in the transportation sector, hydrogen has the possibility to provide a wide range of grid services for the power sector. Electrolyzers, which convert water into hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis, have been shown to be able to respond fast enough to participate in electricity and ancillary service markets, including markets for services such as contingency reserves, load-following, and frequency regulation (Melaina and Eichman 2015). In these applications, hydrogen can be stored when there is excess electricity and can either be used as an input for transportation applications or in electricity generation at a later time. Furthermore, due to the ability to store hydrogen for long periods of time (relative to battery energy storage which loses stored energy over time due to self-discharge), hydrogen may be able to address seasonal imbalances in energy supply and demand in high-VRE power systems. Hydrogen also has many applications in the industrial sector from supplying heat to creating ammonia and purifying raw metallic ore (Zhang et al. 2014).13 Currently, storing electricity with hydrogen is more expensive relative to more mature technologies such as lithium-ion or lead-acid; however, hydrogen prices could eventually benefit from economies of scale due to multisectoral applications in transportation and industry. 4.1.3 Example Deployment or Pilot Project In 2015, the municipal utility of Mainz, Germany, in collaboration with several industrial, university, and government partners developed a 6-MW photon-exchange membrane-electrolyzer hydrogen production facility that will be able to produce 89.8 kg of hydrogen gas per hour.14 The electrolyzer is connected to 12 Although the plant will only be required to generate with pure hydrogen by 2045, the plant will be capable of using a mixture of up to 30% hydrogen once operation begins in 2025. The facility intends on using the abundance of renewable energy in the immediate area of the repurposed gas plants to generate hydrogen and store the hydrogen in a large salt cavern near the plants (LADWP 2019). 13 Purifying the metallic ore of tungsten and molybdenum is already common, but this could be expanded to other metallic ores such as iron, copper, and aluminum, which currently use carbon and carbon monoxide (Zhang et al. 2014). 14 The electric capacity of the electrolyzer (6 MW) refers to the peak capacity of electricity the system can produce when converting hydrogen gas and oxygen back to water and electricity through reverse electrolysis. 32 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.PDF Image | USAID GRID-SCALE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES PRIMER
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