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INTRODUCTION Most of the world’s energy is based on carbon, including fossil fuels—coal, petroleum, and natural gas—as well as biomass and bio-based fuels. Combustion of carbon and hydrogen in these fuels results in the release of heat (the source of energy), along with gaseous products, water and carbon dioxide (CO2), and other materials, such as ash. In 2007 global energy use accounted for over 85% of the 37,000,000,000 tons (37 Gt) of CO2 released to the atmosphere. In the United States, nearly 40% of atmospheric CO2 can be attributed to combustion of fossil fuels to produce electricity, with another 30% resulting from industrial processes and 30% from transportation. As demands for energy have increased globally, CO2 levels have risen sharply, from preindustrial levels of 280 ppm a century ago to over 380 ppm in 2009. These levels are projected to increase even more dramatically over the next 50 years as global demands for energy are anticipated to double. The 1992 U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change called for “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.” Further, this report stated that a stabilizing goal of ≤450 ppm CO2 is needed to avoid serious impacts to the environment.1 Stabilizing atmospheric CO2 concentrations will require enormous reductions in CO2 emissions. Alternate energy sources that release no carbon into the atmosphere during use— solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, and nuclear—offer ultimate solutions to curb global CO2 increases. However, many technologies based on efficient generation of electricity from non- carbon-based energy sources and technologies that use energy produced from these sources, such as plug-in electric or hydrogen-fueled vehicles, are either still in development or in an early stage of commercialization. It will take decades to deploy these zero-carbon technologies at a level that will make a significant impact on reducing fossil fuels as an energy source globally. Thus for the foreseeable future, the world will still depend primarily on the combustion of carbon-based fuels for energy. Carbon capture combined with sequestration is the only means of reducing CO2 emissions in the near term and could serve as a bridging strategy to a time when noncarbon energy technologies are broadly deployed. In addition, conversion of CO2 (e.g., reduction to methane or methanol) could help reduce the amount needing to be sequestered. However, the magnitude of the problem of unfettered carbon emissions to the environment is daunting: continued use of fossil fuel while capping the atmospheric concentration of CO2 at levels of less than 500 ppm is projected to require the capture of ~10 Gt of CO2 per year globally— over a quarter of the CO2 that is generated globally today—and the problem continues to grow as energy use grows. Large-scale carbon capture is most effective at sites where large quantities of CO2 are generated, including large electrical energy generating plants fueled by fossil fuels or biomass; major industrial sites (e.g., for cement, steel, or aluminum production or ethanol fermentation); or facilities in which natural gas, petroleum, synthetic fuels, or fossil-based hydrogen is produced. A typical 550 MW coal-fired electrical plant produces about 2 million cubic feet of flue gas per minute at atmospheric pressure. This large volume of postcombustion flue gas contains CO2 at concentrations of about 12–14% along with water; 3PDF Image | 2020 Carbon Capture
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