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Capture technology options and applications The purpose of CO2 capture is to produce a concentrated stream of CO2 at high pressure that can readily be transported to a storage site. Although, in principle, the entire gas stream containing low concentrations of CO2 could be transported and injected underground, energy costs and other associated costs generally make this approach impractical. It is therefore necessary to produce a nearly pure CO2 stream for transport and storage. Applications separating CO2 in large industrial plants, including natural gas treatment plants and ammonia production facilities, are already in operation today. Currently, CO2 is typically removed to purify other industrial gas streams. Removal has been used for storage purposes in only a few cases; in most cases, the CO2 is emitted to the atmosphere. Capture processes also have been used to obtain commercially useful amounts of CO2 from flue gas streams generated by the combustion of coal or natural gas. To date, however, there have been no applications of CO2 capture at large (e.g., 500 MW) power plants. Technical Summary 25 high CO2 concentrations (greater than 80% by volume). The water vapour is then removed by cooling and compressing the gas stream. Oxyfuel combustion requires the upstream separation of oxygen from air, with a purity of 95–99% oxygen assumed in most current designs. Further treatment of the flue gas may be needed to remove air pollutants and non- condensed gases (such as nitrogen) from the flue gas before the CO2 is sent to storage. As a method of CO2 capture in boilers, oxyfuel combustion systems are in the demonstration phase (see Table TS.1). Oxyfuel systems are also being studied in gas turbine systems, but conceptual designs for such applications are still in the research phase. Figure TS.3 shows a schematic diagram of the main capture processes and systems. All require a step involving the separation of CO2, H2 or O2 from a bulk gas stream (such as flue gas, synthesis gas, air or raw natural gas). These separation steps can be accomplished by means of physical or chemical solvents, membranes, solid sorbents, or by cryogenic separation. The choice of a specific capture technology is determined largely by the process conditions under which it must operate. Current post-combustion and pre-combustion systems for power plants could capture 85–95% of the CO2 that is produced. Higher capture efficiencies are possible, although separation devices become considerably larger, more energy intensive and more costly. Capture and compression need roughly 10–40% more energy than the equivalent plant without capture, depending on the type of system. Due to the associated CO2 emissions, the net amount of CO2 captured is approximately 80–90%. Oxyfuel combustion systems are, in principle, able to capture nearly all of the CO2 produced. However, the need for additional gas treatment systems to remove pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides lowers the level of CO2 captured to slightly more than 90%. As noted in Section 1, CO2 capture is already used in several industrial applications (see Figure TS.4). The same technologies as would be used for pre-combustion capture are employed for the large-scale production of hydrogen (which is used mainly for ammonia and fertilizer manufacture, and for petroleum refinery operations). The separation of CO2 from raw natural gas (which typically contains significant amounts of CO2) is also practised on a large scale, using technologies similar to those used for post-combustion capture. Although commercial systems are also available for large-scale oxygen separation, oxyfuel combustion for CO2 capture is currently in the demonstration phase. In addition, research is being conducted to achieve higher levels of system integration, increased efficiency and reduced cost for all types of capture systems. Depending on the process or power plant application in question, there are three main approaches to capturing the CO2 generated from a primary fossil fuel (coal, natural gas or oil), biomass, or mixtures of these fuels: Post-combustion systems separate CO2 from the flue gases produced by the combustion of the primary fuel in air. These systems normally use a liquid solvent to capture the small fraction of CO2 (typically 3–15% by volume) present in a flue gas stream in which the main constituent is nitrogen (from air). For a modern pulverized coal (PC) power plant or a natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plant, current post-combustion capture systems would typically employ an organic solvent such as monoethanolamine (MEA). Pre-combustion systems process the primary fuel in a reactor with steam and air or oxygen to produce a mixture consisting mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (“synthesis gas”). Additional hydrogen, together with CO2, is produced by reacting the carbon monoxide with steam in a second reactor (a “shift reactor”). The resulting mixture of hydrogen and CO2 can then be separated into a CO2 gas stream, and a stream of hydrogen. If the CO2 is stored, the hydrogen is a carbon-free energy carrier that can be combusted to generate power and/or heat. Although the initial fuel conversion steps are more elaborate and costly than in post-combustion systems, the high concentrations of CO2 produced by the shift reactor (typically 15 to 60% by volume on a dry basis) and the high pressures often encountered in these applications are more favourable for CO2 separation. Pre-combustion would be used at power plants that employ integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technology. Oxyfuel combustion systems use oxygen instead of air for combustion of the primary fuel to produce a flue gas that is mainly water vapour and CO2. This results in a flue gas withPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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