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34 Technical Summary Table TS.6. Storage capacity for several geological storage options. The storage capacity includes storage options that are not economical. a These numbers would increase by 25% if ‘undiscovered’ oil and gas fields were included in this assessment. Reservoir type Lower estimate of storage capacity (GtCO2) Upper estimate of storage capacity (GtCO2) Oil and gas fields 675a 900a Unminable coal seams (ECBM) 3-15 200 Deep saline formations 1,000 Uncertain, but possibly 104 gas reservoir engineering and groundwater resources investigations. Although they include many of the physical, chemical and geomechanical processes needed to predict both short-term and long-term performance of CO2 storage, more experience is needed to establish confidence in their effectiveness in predicting long-term performance when adapted for CO2 storage. Moreover, the availability of good site characterization data is critical for the reliability of models. Risk assessment and environmental impact than 7–10% in air would cause immediate dangers to human life and health. Containing these kinds of releases may take hours to days and the overall amount of CO2 released is likely to be very small compared to the total amount injected. These types of hazards are managed effectively on a regular basis in the oil and gas industry using engineering and administrative controls. In the second scenario, leakage could occur through undetected faults, fractures or through leaking wells where the release to the surface is more gradual and diffuse. In this case, hazards primarily affect drinking-water aquifers and ecosystems where CO2 accumulates in the zone between the surface and the top of the water table. Groundwater can be affected both by CO2 leaking directly into an aquifer and by brines that enter the aquifer as a result of being displaced by CO2 during the injection process. There may also be acidification of soils and displacement of oxygen in soils in this scenario. Additionally, if leakage to the atmosphere were to occur in low-lying areas with little wind, or in sumps and basements overlying these diffuse leaks, humans and animals would be harmed if a leak were to go undetected. Humans would be less affected by leakage from offshore storage locations than from onshore storage locations. Leakage routes can be identified by several techniques and by characterization of the reservoir. Figure TS.8 shows some of the potential leakage paths for a saline formation. When the potential leakage routes are known, the monitoring and remediation strategy can be adapted to address the potential leakage. Careful storage system design and siting, together with methods for early detection of leakage (preferably long before CO2 reaches the land surface), are effective ways of reducing hazards associated with diffuse leakage. The available monitoring methods are promising, but more experience is needed to establish detection levels and resolution. Once leakages are detected, some remediation techniques are available to stop or control them. Depending on the type of leakage, these techniques could involve standard well repair techniques, or the extraction of CO2 by intercepting its leak into a shallow groundwater aquifer (see Figure TS.8). The risks due to leakage from storage of CO2 in geological reservoirs fall into two broad categories: global risks and local risks. Global risks involve the release of CO2 that may contribute significantly to climate change if some fraction leaks from the storage formation to the atmosphere. In addition, if CO2 leaks out of a storage formation, local hazards may exist for humans, ecosystems and groundwater. These are the local risks. With regard to global risks, based on observations and analysis of current CO2 storage sites, natural systems, engineering systems and models, the fraction retained in appropriately selected and managed reservoirs is very likely10 to exceed 99% over 100 years, and is likely to exceed 99% over 1000 years. Similar fractions retained are likely for even longer periods of time, as the risk of leakage is expected to decrease over time as other mechanisms provide additional trapping. The question of whether these fractions retained would be sufficient to make impermanent storage valuable for climate change mitigation is discussed in Section 8. With regard to local risks, there are two types of scenarios in which leakage may occur. In the first case, injection well failures or leakage up abandoned wells could create a sudden and rapid release of CO2. This type of release is likely to be detected quickly and stopped using techniques that are available today for containing well blow-outs. Hazards associated with this type of release primarily affect workers in the vicinity of the release at the time it occurs, or those called in to control the blow-out. A concentration of CO2 greater 10 “Very likely” is a probability of 90 to 99%.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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