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Chapter 1: Introduction 59 amounting to 73 to 183 MtCO2 per year (20 to 50 MtC per year) from coal and a similar amount from natural gas (see Table TS.1 in IPCC, 2001a). Nevertheless, faced with the longer-term climate challenge described above, and in view of the growing interest in this option, it has become important to analyze the potential of this technology in more depth. forests was considered a promising near-term mitigation option (IPCC, 2000b), attracting commercial attention at prices of 0.8 to 1.1 US$/tCO2 (3-4 US$/tC). The costs quoted for mitigation in most afforestation projects are presented on a different basis from power generation options, making the afforestation examples look more favourable (Freund and Davison, 2002). Nevertheless, even after allowing for this, the cost of current projects is low. As a result of the 2002 IPCC workshop on CO2 capture and storage (IPCC, 2002), it is now recognized that the amount of CO2 emissions which could potentially be captured and stored may be higher than the value given in the Third Assessment Report. Indeed, the emissions reduction may be very significant compared with the values quoted above for the period after 2020. Wider use of this option may tend to restrict the opportunity to use other supply options. Nevertheless, such action might still lead to an increase in emissions abatement because much of the potential estimated previously (IPCC, 2001a) was from the application of measures concerned with end uses of energy. Some applications of CCS cost relatively little (for example, storage of CO2 from gas processing as in the Sleipner project (Baklid et al., 1996)) and this could allow them to be used at a relatively early date. Certain large industrial sources could present interesting low-cost opportunities for CCS, especially if combined with storage opportunities which generate compensating revenue, such as CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (IEA GHG, 2002). This is discussed in Chapter 2. It is important, when comparing different mitigation options, to consider not just costs but also the potential capacity for emission reduction. A convenient way of doing this is to use Marginal Abatement Cost curves (MACs) to describe the potential capacity for mitigation; these are not yet available for all mitigation options but they are being developed (see, for example, IEA GHG, 2000b). Several other aspects of the comparison of mitigation options are discussed later in this chapter and in Chapter 8. 1.3.7 Comparing mitigation options 1.4 Characteristics of CO2 capture and storage In order to help the reader understand how CO2 capture and storage could be used as a mitigation option, some of the key features of the technology are briefly introduced here. 1.4.1 Overview of the CO2 capture and storage concept and its development Capturing CO2 typically involves separating it from a gas stream. Suitable techniques were developed 60 years ago in connection with the production of town gas; these involved scrubbing the gas stream with a chemical solvent (Siddique, 1990). Subsequently they were adapted for related purposes, such as capturing CO2 from the flue gas streams of coal- or gas-burning plant for the carbonation of drinks and brine, and for enhancing oil recovery. These developments required improvements to the process so as to inhibit the oxidation of the solvent in the flue gas stream. Other types of solvent and other methods of separation have been developed more recently. This technique is widely used today for separating CO2 and other acid gases from natural gas streams10. Horn and Steinberg (1982) and Hendriks et al. (1989) were among the first to discuss the application of this type of technology to mitigation of climate change, focusing initially on electricity generation. CO2 removal is already used in the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels; Audus et al. (1996) discussed the application of capture and storage in this process as a climate protection measure. 10 The total number of installations is not known but is probably several thousand. Kohl and Nielsen (1997) mention 334 installations using physical solvent scrubbing; this source does not provide a total for the number of chemical solvent plants but they do mention one survey which alone examined 294 amine scrubbing plants. There are also a number of membrane units and other methods of acid gas treatment in use today. A variety of factors will need to be taken into account in any comparison of mitigation options, not least who is making the comparison and for what purpose. The remainder of this chapter discusses various aspects of CCS in a context which may be relevant to decision-makers. In addition, there are broader issues, especially questions of comparison with other mitigation measures. Answering such questions will depend on many factors, including the potential of each option to deliver emission reductions, the national resources available, the accessibility of each technology for the country concerned, national commitments to reduce emissions, the availability of finance, public acceptance, likely infrastructural changes, environmental side-effects, etc. Most aspects of this kind must be considered both in relative terms (e.g., how does this compare with other mitigation options?) and absolute terms (e.g., how much does this cost?), some of which will change over time as the technology advances. The IPCC (2001a) found that improvements in energy efficiency have the potential to reduce global CO2 emissions by 30% below year-2000 levels using existing technologies at a cost of less than 30 US$/tCO2 (100 US$/tC). Half of this reduction could be achieved with existing technology at zero or net negative costs9. Wider use of renewable energy sources was also found to have substantial potential. Carbon sequestration by In order to transport CO2 to possible storage sites, it is compressed to reduce its volume; in its ‘dense phase’, CO2 occupies around 0.2% of the volume of the gas at standard temperature and pressure (see Appendix 1 for further information 9 Meaning that the value of energy savings would exceed the technology capital and operating costs within a defined period of time using appropriate discount rates.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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