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60 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage about the properties of CO2). Several million tonnes per year of CO2 are transported today by pipeline (Skovholt, 1993), by ship and by road tanker. option has to be examined using integrated energy system models (early studies by Yamaji (1997) have since been followed by many others). An assessment of the environmental impact of the technology through life cycle analysis was reported by Audus and Freund (1997) and other studies have since examined this further. In principle, there are many options available for the storage of CO2. The first proposal of such a concept (Marchetti, 1977) envisaged injection of CO2 into the ocean so that it was carried into deep water where, it was thought, it would remain for hundreds of years. In order to make a significant difference to the atmospheric loading of greenhouse gases, the amount of CO2 that would need to be stored in this way would have to be significant compared to the amounts of CO2 currently emitted to the atmosphere – in other words gigatonnes of CO2 per year. The only potential storage sites with capacity for such quantities are natural reservoirs, such as geological formations (the capacity of European formations was first assessed by Holloway et al., 1996) or the deep ocean (Cole et al., 1993). Other storage options have also been proposed, as discussed below. The concept of CO2 capture and storage is therefore based on a combination of known technologies applied to the new purpose of mitigating climate change. The economic potential of this technique to enable deep reductions in emissions was examined by Edmonds et al. (2001), and is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. The scope for further improvement of the technology and for development of new ideas is examined in later chapters, each of which focuses on a specific part of the system. Injection of CO2 underground would involve similar technology to that employed by the oil and gas industry for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons, and for the underground injection of waste as practised in the USA. Wells would be drilled into geological formations and CO2 would be injected in the same way as CO2 has been injected for enhanced oil recovery11 since the 1970s (Blunt et al., 1993; Stevens and Gale, 2000). In some cases, this could lead to the enhanced production of hydrocarbons, which would help to offset the cost. An extension of this idea involves injection into saline formations (Koide et al., 1992) or into unminable coal seams (Gunter et al., 1997); in the latter case, such injection may sometimes result in the displacement of methane, which could be used as a fuel. The world’s first commercial-scale CO2 storage facility, which began operation in 1996, makes use of a deep saline formation under the North Sea (Korbol and Kaddour, 1995; Baklid et al., 1996). 1.4.2 Systems for CO2 capture Monitoring will be required both for purposes of managing the storage site and verifying the extent of CO2 emissions reduction which has been achieved. Techniques such as seismic surveys, which have developed by the oil and gas industry, have been shown to be adequate for observing CO2 underground (Gale et al., 2001) and may form the basis for monitoring CO2 stored in such reservoirs. Figure 1.3b shows a plant of this kind modified to capture CO2 from the flue gas stream, in other words after combustion. Once it has been captured, the CO2 is compressed in order to transport it to the storage site. Figure 1.3c shows another variant where CO2 is removed before combustion (pre-combustion decarbonization). Figure 1.3d represents an alternative where nitrogen is extracted from air before combustion; in other words, pure oxygen is supplied as the oxidant. This type of system is commonly referred to as oxyfuel combustion. A necessary part of this process is the recycling of CO2 or water to moderate the combustion temperature. Many alternatives to the storage of dense phase CO2 have been proposed: for example, using the CO2 to make chemicals or other products (Aresta, 1987), fixing it in mineral carbonates for storage in a solid form (Seifritz, 1990; Dunsmore, 1992), storing it as solid CO2 (‘dry ice’) (Seifritz, 1992), as CO2 hydrate (Uchida et al., 1995), or as solid carbon (Steinberg, 1996). Another proposal is to capture the CO2 from flue gases using micro-algae to make a product which can be turned into a biofuel (Benemann, 1993). The main application examined so far for CO2 capture and storage has been its use in power generation. However, in other large energy-intensive industries (e.g., cement manufacture, oil refining, ammonia production, and iron and steel manufacture), individual plants can also emit large amounts of CO2, so these industries could also use this technology. In some cases, for example in the production of ammonia or hydrogen, the nature of the exhaust gases (being concentrated in CO2) would make separation less expensive. The potential role of CO2 capture and storage as a mitigation The main applications foreseen for this technology are therefore in large, central facilities that produce significant quantities of CO2. However, as indicated in Table 1.1, roughly 38% of emissions arise from dispersed sources such as buildings and, in particular, vehicles. These are generally not considered suitable for the direct application of CO2 capture because of the economies of scale associated with the capture processes as well as the difficulties and costs of transporting small amounts of Figure 1.3 illustrates how CO2 capture and storage may be configured for use in electricity generation. A conventional fossil fuel-fired power plant is shown schematically in Figure 1.3a. Here, the fuel (e.g., natural gas) and an oxidant (typically air) are brought together in a combustion system; heat from this is used to drive a turbine/generator which produces electricity. The exhaust gases are released to atmosphere. 1.4.3 Range of possible uses 11 For example, there were 40 gas-processing plants in Canada in 2002 separating CO2 and H2S from produced natural gas and injecting them into geological reservoirs (see Chapter 5.2.4). There are also 76 Enhanced Oil Recovery projects where CO2 is injected underground (Stevens and Gale, 2000).PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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