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70 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage secure that emissions will be reduced and also that there will be no significant threat to human health or to ecosystems (Hawkins, 2003). Carbon dioxide transport and storage will have to be monitored to ensure there is little or no release to the atmosphere but monitoring issues are still being debated. For example, can the anticipated low rates of CO2 release from geological storage be detected by currently available monitoring techniques? Who will do this monitoring (IEA GHG, 2004b)? How long should monitoring continue after injection: for periods of decades or centuries (IEA GHG, 2004c)? 1.7 Implications for technology transfer and sustainable development 1.7.1 Equity and sustainable development 2005). Most policies designed to achieve the mitigation of climate change also have other important rationales. They can be related to the objectives of development, sustainability and equity. ‘Conventional’ climate policy analyses have tended to be driven (directly or indirectly) by the question: what is the cost-effective means of mitigating climate change for the global economy? Typically, these analyses start from a baseline projection of greenhouse gas emissions and reflect a specific set of socio-economic projections. Equity considerations are added to the process, to broaden the discussion from global welfare as a single subject to include the effects of climate change and mitigation policies on existing inequalities, amongst and within nations. The goal here goes beyond providing for basic survival, extending to a standard of living that provides security and dignity for all. The climate change issue involves complex interactions between climatic, environmental, economic, political, institutional, social, scientific, and technological processes. It cannot be addressed in isolation from broader societal goals, such as equity or sustainable development (IPCC, 2001a), or other existing or probable future sources of environmental, economic or social stress. In keeping with this complexity, a multiplicity of approaches has emerged to analyze climate change and related challenges. Many of these incorporate concerns about development, equity, and sustainability, albeit partially and gradually (IPCC, 2001a). Ancillary effects of mitigation policies may include reductions in local and regional air pollution, as well as indirect effects on transportation, agriculture, land use practices, biodiversity preservation, employment, fuel security, etc. (Krupnick et al., 2000). The concept of ‘co-benefits’ can be used to capture dimensions of the response to mitigation policies from the equity and sustainability perspectives in a way that could modify the projections produced by those working from the cost-effectiveness perspective. As yet, little analysis has been reported of the option of CCS in these respects. Sustainable development is too complex a subject for a simple summary; the study of this field aims to assess the benefits and trade-offs involved in the pursuit of the multiple goals of environmental conservation, social equity, economic growth, and eradication of poverty (IPCC, 2001a, Chapter 1). Most of the studies only make a first attempt to integrate a number of important sustainable development indicators and only a few have considered the implications for CCS (Turkenburg, 1997). To date, studies have focused on short-term side-effects of climate change mitigation policies (e.g., impact on local air and water quality) but they have also suggested a number of additional indicators to reflect development (e.g., job creation) and social impact (e.g., income distribution). CCS also poses issues relating to long-term liability for possible unintended releases or contamination which may have inter-generational and, in some cases, international consequences24. Further studies will be needed to develop suitable answers about CCS. In particular, long-term liability must be shown to be compatible with sustainable development. Will CO2 capture and storage favour the creation of job opportunities for particular countries? Will it favour technological and financial elitism or will it enhance equity by reducing the cost of energy? In terms of sustainable development, does the maintenance of the current market structures aid those countries that traditionally market fossil fuels, relative to those that import them? Is this something which mitigation policies should be developed to assist? There are no simple answers to these questions but policymakers may want to consider them. However, no analysis of these aspects of CCS is yet available. Furthermore, the mitigation options available will vary from country to country; in each case, policymakers have to balance such ancillary benefits with the direct benefits of the various options in order to select the most appropriate strategy. There are various viewpoints relating to climate policy: one is based on cost-effectiveness, another on environmental sustainability, and another on equity (Munasinghe and Swart, 1.7.2 Technology transfer Article 4.5 of the UNFCCC requires all Annex I countries to take ‘All practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies and know-how to other parties, particularly developing countries, to enable them to implement provisions of the convention.’ This applies to CCS as much as it does to any other mitigation option. This was precisely stated in the declaration issued at COP 7 (UNFCCC, 2001). Paragraph 8, item (d) states: ‘Cooperating in the development, diffusion and transfer (...) and/or technologies relating to fossil fuels that capture and store GHGs, and encouraging their wider use, and facilitating the participation of the least developed countries and other Parties not included in Annex I in this effort’ 24 Some legislation is already in place which will influence this: for example both the London Convention (Article X) and its 1996 Protocol (Article 15) contain provisions stating that liability is in accordance with the principles of international law regarding a state’s responsibility for damage caused to the environment of other states or to any other area of the environment. Similarly, regional agreements such as the OSPAR Convention incorporate the ‘polluter pays’ principle (Article 2(b)). In achieving these objectives of the Convention, several keyPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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