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Chapter 2: Sources of CO2 and high flame speed. However, industrial experience shows that hydrogen can be manufactured and used safely in many applications (NRC, 2004). There is widespread industrial experience with the production and distribution of hydrogen, mainly for the synthesis of ammonia fertilizer and hydro-treatment in oil refineries. Current global hydrogen production is 45 million t yr-1, the equivalent to 1.4% of global primary energy use in 2000 (Simbeck, 2003). Forty-eight per cent is produced from natural gas, 30% from oil, 18% from coal, and 4% via electrolysis of water. Ammonia production, which consumes about 100,000 MWt of hydrogen, is growing by 2–4% per year. Oil refinery demand for hydrogen is also increasing, largely because of the ongoing shift to heavier crude oils and regulations limiting the sulphur content of transport fuels. Most hydrogen is currently manufactured via steam methane reforming (SMR), steam reforming of naphtha, and the gasification of petroleum residues and coal. The SMR option is generally favoured due to its lower capital cost wherever natural gas is available at reasonable prices. Nevertheless, there are currently about 75 modern commercial gasification plants making about 20,000 MWt of hydrogen from coal and oil refinery residues (NETL-DOE, 2002); these are mostly ammonia fertilizer plants and hydrogen plants in oil refineries in China, Europe, and North America. There are currently over 16,000 km of hydrogen pipelines around the world. Most are relatively short and located in industrial areas for large customers who make chemicals, reduce metals, and engage in the hydro-treatment of oil at refineries. The longest pipeline currently in operation is 400 km long and is located in a densely populated area of Europe, running from Antwerp to northern France. The pipeline operates at a pressure of about 60 atmospheres (Simbeck, 2004). 99 Fossil fuel plants producing hydrogen with CO2 capture and storage would typically be large, producing volumes of the order of 1000 MWt (720 t day-1)6 in order to keep the hydrogen costs and CO2 storage costs low. Per kg of hydrogen, the co-production rate would be about 8 kgCO2 with SMR and 15 kgCO2 with coal gasification, so that the CO2 storage rates (for plants operated at 80% average capacity factor) would be 1.7 and 3.1 million tonnes per year for SMR and coal gasification plants respectively. Interest in synthetic liquid fuels stems from concerns about both the security of oil supplies (TFEST, 2004) and the expectation that it could possibly be decades before hydrogen can make a major contribution to the energy economy (NRC, 2004). There is considerable activity worldwide relating to the manufacture of Fischer-Tropsch liquids from stranded natural gas supplies. The first major gas to liquids plant, producing 12,500 barrels per day, was built in Malaysia in 1993. Several projects are underway to make Fischer-Tropsch liquid fuels from natural gas in Qatar at plant capacities ranging from 30,000 to 140,000 barrels per day. Although gas to liquids projects do not typically produce concentrated by-product streams of CO2, synthetic fuel projects using synthesis gas derived from coal (or other solid feedstocks such as biomass or petroleum residuals) via gasification could produce large streams of concentrated CO2 that are good candidates for capture and storage. At Sasol in South Africa, coal containing some 20 million tonnes of carbon is consumed annually in the manufacture of synthetic fuels and chemicals. About 32% of the carbon ends up in the products, 40% is vented as CO2 in dilute streams, and 28% is released as nearly pure CO2 at a rate of about 20 million tonnes of CO2 per year. In addition, since 2000, 1.5 million tonnes per year of CO2 by-product from synthetic methane production at a coal gasification plant in North Dakota (United States) have been captured and transported 300 km by pipeline to the Weyburn oil field in Saskatchewan (Canada), where it is used for enhanced oil recovery (see Chapter 5 for more details). Coal-based synthetic fuel plants being planned or considered in China include six 600,000 t yr-1 methanol plants, two 800,000 t yr-1 dimethyl ether plants, and two or more large Fischer-Tropsch liquids plants7. In the United States, the Department of Energy is supporting a demonstration project in Pennsylvania to make 5,000 barrels/ day of Fischer-Tropsch liquids plus 41 MWe of electricity from low-quality coal. If synthesis-gas-based energy systems become established in the market, economic considerations are likely to lead, as in the case of hydrogen production, to the construction of large facilities that would generate huge, relatively pure, CO2 co- product streams. Polygeneration plants, for example plants that could produce synthetic liquid fuels plus electricity, would benefit as a result of economies of scale, economies of scope, and opportunities afforded by greater system operating flexibility (Williams et al., 2000; Bechtel et al., 2003; Larson and Ren, 2003; Celik et al., 2005). In such plants, CO2 could be captured from shifted synthesis gas streams both upstream and downstream of the synthesis reactor where the synthetic fuel is produced. 7 Most of the methanol would be used for making chemicals and for subsequent conversion to dimethyl ether, although some methanol will be used for transport fuel. The dimethyl ether would be used mainly as a cooking fuel. Making hydrogen from fossil fuels with CO2 capture and storage in a relatively small number of large plants for use in large numbers of mobile and stationary distributed applications could lead to major reductions in fuel-cycle-wide emissions compared to petroleum-based energy systems. This takes into account all fossil fuel energy inputs, including energy for petroleum refining and hydrogen compression at refuelling stations (NRC, 2004; Ogden et al., 2004). No estimates have yet been made of the number of large stationary, concentrated CO2 sources that could be generated via such hydrogen production systems and their geographical distribution. With CO2 capture and storage, the fuel-cycle-wide greenhouse gas emissions per GJ for coal derived synthetic 2.5.2 Alternative energy carriers and CO2 source implications 6 A plant of this kind operating at 80% capacity could support 2 million hydrogen fuel cell cars with a gasoline-equivalent fuel economy of 2.9 L per 100 km driving 14,000 km per year.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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