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122 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage a given application (see Section 3.7). Hence, with the dominant role played by air- blown energy conversion processes in the global energy infrastructure, the availability of post-combustion capture systems is important if CO2 capture and storage becomes a viable climate change mitigation strategy. with legislation covering co-disposal of toxic or hazardous waste or to avoid operations or environmental problems with disposal in deep saline reservoirs, hydrocarbon formations or in the ocean. The carbon dioxide must also be dried to prevent water condensation and corrosion in pipelines and allow use of conventional carbon-steel materials. The intense development efforts on novel solvents for improved performance and reduced energy consumption during regeneration, as well as process designs incorporating new contacting devices such as hybrid membrane-absorbent systems, solid adsorbents and high temperature regenerable sorbents, may lead to the use of more energy efficient post- combustion capture systems. However, all these novel concepts still need to prove their lower costs and reliability of operation on a commercial scale. The same considerations also apply to other advanced CO2 capture concepts with oxy-fuel combustion or pre-combustion capture reviewed in the following sections of this chapter. It is generally not yet clear which of these emerging technologies, if any, will succeed as the dominant commercial technology for energy systems incorporating CO2 capture. Although elements of oxy-fuel combustion technologies are in use in the aluminium, iron and steel and glass melting industries today, oxy-fuel technologies for CO2 capture have yet to be deployed on a commercial scale. Therefore, the first classification between existing technologies and emerging technologies adopted in post-combustion (Section 3.3) and pre-combustion (Section 3.5) is not followed in this section. However, it is important to emphasize that the key separation step in most oxy-fuel capture systems (O2 from air) is an ‘existing technology’ (see Section 3.4.5). Current methods of oxygen production by air separation comprise cryogenic distillation, adsorption using multi-bed pressure swing units and polymeric membranes. For oxy-fuel conversions requiring less than 200 tO2 d-1, the adsorption system will be economic. For all the larger applications, which include power station boilers, cryogenic air separation is the economic solution (Wilkinson et al., 2003a). 3.4 Oxy-fuel combustion capture systems 3.4.1 Introduction In the following sections we present the main oxy-fuel combustion systems classified according to how the heat of combustion is supplied and whether the flue gas is used as a working fluid (Sections 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.4.4). A brief overview of O2 production methods relevant for these systems is given (Section 3.4.5). In Section 3.4.6, the emerging technology of chemical looping combustion is presented, in which pure oxygen is supplied by a metal oxide rather than an oxygen production process. The section on oxy-fuel systems closes with an overview of the status of the technology (Section 3.4.7). The oxy-fuel combustion process eliminates nitrogen from the flue gas by combusting a hydrocarbon or carbonaceous fuel in either pure oxygen or a mixture of pure oxygen and a CO2- rich recycled flue gas (carbonaceous fuels include biomass). Combustion of a fuel with pure oxygen has a combustion temperature of about 3500°C which is far too high for typical power plant materials. The combustion temperature is limited to about 1300-1400°C in a typical gas turbine cycle and to about 1900°C in an oxy-fuel coal-fired boiler using current technology. The combustion temperature is controlled by the proportion of flue gas and gaseous or liquid-water recycled back to the combustion chamber. 3.4.2 Oxy-fuel indirect heating - steam cycle The combustion products (or flue gas) consist mainly of carbon dioxide and water vapour together with excess oxygen required to ensure complete combustion of the fuel. It will also contain any other components in the fuel, any diluents in the oxygen stream supplied, any inerts in the fuel and from air leakage into the system from the atmosphere. The net flue gas, after cooling to condense water vapour, contains from about 80-98% CO2 depending on the fuel used and the particular oxy-fuel combustion process. This concentrated CO2 stream can be compressed, dried and further purified before delivery into a pipeline for storage (see Chapter 4). The CO2 capture efficiency is very close to 100% in oxy-fuel combustion capture systems. Impurities in the CO2 are gas components such as SOx, NOx, HCl and Hg derived from the fuel used, and the inert gas components, such as nitrogen, argon and oxygen, derived from the oxygen feed or air leakage into the system. The CO2 is transported by pipeline as a dense supercritical phase. Inert gases must be reduced to a low concentration to avoid two- phase flow conditions developing in the pipeline systems. The acid gas components may need to be removed to comply In these systems, the oxy-fuel combustion chamber provides heat to a separate fluid by heat transfer through a surface. It can be used for either process heating, or in a boiler with a steam cycle for power generation. The indirect system can be used with any hydrocarbon or carbon-containing fuel. The application of oxy-fuel indirect heating for CO2 capture in process heating and power generation has been examined in both pilot-scale trials evaluating the combustion of carbonaceous fuels in oxygen and CO2-rich recycled flue gas mixtures and engineering assessments of plant conversions as described below. 3.4.2.1 Oxy-fuel combustion trials Work to demonstrate the application of oxy-fuel recycle combustion in process heating and for steam generation for use in steam power cycles have been mostly undertaken in pilot scale tests that have looked at the combustion, heat transfer and pollutant-forming behaviour of natural gas and coal. One study carried out (Babcock Energy Ltd. et al., 1995) included an oxy-fuel test with flue gas recycle using a 160kW,PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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