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142 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage processes and the costs of doing so are included in published costs of CO2 capture plants. solvent, as discussed in Section 3.3.2.1. The waste from MEA scrubbing would normally be processed to remove metals and then incinerated. The waste can also be disposed of in cement kilns, where the waste metals become agglomerated in the clinker (IEA GHG, 2004). Pre-combustion capture systems periodically produce spent shift and reforming catalysts and these would be sent to specialist reprocessing and disposal facilities. As discussed in Chapter 1, the framework used throughout this report to assess the impacts of CO2 capture and storage is based on the material and energy flows needed to produce a unit of product from a particular process. As seen earlier in this chapter, CO2 capture systems require an increase in energy use for their operation. As defined in this report (see Section 1.5 and Figure 1.5), the energy requirement associated with CO2 capture is expressed as the additional energy required to produce a unit of useful product, such as a kilowatt-hour of electricity (for the case of a power plant). As the energy and resource requirement for CO2 capture (which includes the energy needed to compress CO2 for subsequent transport and storage) is typically much larger than for other emission control systems, it has important implications for plant resource requirements and environmental emissions when viewed from the ‘systems’ perspective of Figure 1.5. ∆E = (ηref / ηccs) - 1 (6) where ∆E is the fractional increase in plant energy input per unit of product and ηccs and ηref are the net efficiencies of the capture plant and reference plant, respectively. The CCS energy requirement directly determines the increases in plant-level resource consumption and environmental burdens associated with producing a unit of useful product (like electricity) while capturing CO2. In the case of a power plant, the larger the CCS energy requirement, the greater the increases per kilowatt-hour of in-plant fuel consumption and other resource requirements (such as water, chemicals and reagents), as well as environmental releases in the form of solid wastes, liquid wastes and air pollutants not captured by the CCS system. The magnitude of ∆E also determines the magnitude of additional upstream environmental impacts associated with the extraction, storage and transport of additional fuel and other resources consumed at the plant. However, the additional energy for these upstream activities is not normally included in the reported CO2 from post-combustion solvent scrubbing processes normally contains low concentrations of impurities. Many of the existing post-combustion capture plants produce high purity CO2 for use in the food industry (IEA GHG, 2004). CO2 from pre-combustion physical solvent scrubbing processes typically contains about 1-2% H2 and CO and traces of H2S and other sulphur compounds (IEA GHG, 2003). IGCC plants with pre-combustion capture can be designed to produce a combined stream of CO2 and sulphur compounds, to reduce costs and avoid the production of solid sulphur (IEA GHG, 2003). Combined streams of CO2 and sulphur compounds (primarily hydrogen sulphide, H2S) are already stored, for example in Canada, as discussed in Chapter 5. However, this option would only be considered in circumstances where the combined stream could be transported and stored in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner. 3.6.1.2 Framework for evaluating capture system impacts The CO2-rich gas from oxy-fuel processes contains oxygen, nitrogen, argon, sulphur and nitrogen oxides and various other trace impurities. This gas will normally be compressed and fed to a cryogenic purification process to reduce the impurities concentrations to the levels required to avoid two-phase flow conditions in the transportation pipelines. A 99.99% purity could be produced by including distillation in the cryogenic separation unit. Alternatively, the sulphur and nitrogen oxides could be left in the CO2 fed to storage in circumstances where that is environmentally acceptable as described above for pre- combustion capture and when the total amount of all impurities left in the CO2 is low enough to avoid two-phase flow conditions in transportation pipelines. In general, the CCS energy requirement per unit of product can be expressed in terms of the change in net plant efficiency (η) when the reference plant without capture is equipped with a CCS system:1 Power plants with CO2 capture would emit a CO2-depleted flue gas to the atmosphere. The concentrations of most harmful substances in the flue gas would be similar to or lower than in the flue gas from plants without CO2 capture, because CO2 capture processes inherently remove some impurities and some other impurities have to be removed upstream to enable the CO2 capture process to operate effectively. For example, post-combustion solvent absorption processes require low concentrations of sulphur compounds in the feed gas to avoid excessive solvent loss, but the reduction in the concentration of an impurity may still result in a higher rate of emissions per kWh of product, depending upon the actual amount removed upstream and the capture system energy requirements. As discussed below (Section 3.6.1.2), the latter measure is more relevant for environmental assessments. In the case of post- combustion solvent capture, the flue gas may also contain traces of solvent and ammonia produced by decomposition of solvent. Some CO2 capture systems produce solid and liquid wastes. Solvent scrubbing processes produce degraded solvent wastes, which would be incinerated or disposed of by other means. Post-combustion capture processes produce substantially more degraded solvent than pre-combustion capture processes. However, use of novel post-combustion capture solvents can significantly reduce the quantity of waste compared to MEA 1 A different measure of the ‘energy penalty’ commonly reported in the literature is the fractional decrease in plant output (plant derating) for a fixed energy input. This value can be expressed as: ∆E* = 1 – (η /η ). Numerically, ∆E* ccs ref is smaller than the value of ∆E given by Equation (6). For example, a plant derating of ∆E* = 25% corresponds to an increase in energy input per kWh of ∆E = 33%.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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