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152 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage CO2 capture system energy requirement, power plant efficiency, fuel type, plant capacity factor and fixed charge rate (Rao and Rubin, 2002). In this regard, it is useful to note that the lowest- cost capture systems in Table 3.7 (in terms of COE and cost of CO2 avoided) come from a recent study (IEA GHG, 2004) that combines an efficient supercritical power plant design using bituminous coal, with high plant utilization, lowest fixed charge rate and more energy-efficient amine system designs, as recently announced by two major vendors (but not yet demonstrated on coal-fired power plants). In contrast, the highest reported COE values are for less efficient subcritical plant designs using low rank coal, combined with lower capacity factors, higher fixed charge rates and employing amine system designs typical of units currently in operation at small power plants. plant installation. Nonetheless, in cases where the capital cost of the existing plant has been fully or substantially amortized, Table 3.8 shows that the COE of a retrofitted plant with capture (including all new capital requirements) can be comparable to or lower than that of a new plant, although the incremental COE is typically higher because of the factors noted above. Recent increases in world coal prices, if sustained, also would affect the levelized COE values reported here. Based on one recent study (IEA GHG, 2004), each 1.00 US$ GJ-1 increase in coal price would increase the COE by 8.2 US$ MWh-1 for a new PC plant without capture and by 10.1 US$ MWh-1 for a plant with capture. Table 3.8 further shows that for comparable levels of about 85% CO2 reduction per kWh, the average cost of CO2 avoided for retrofits is about 35% higher than for the new plants analyzed in Table 3.7. The incremental capital cost and COE depend strongly on site-specific assumptions, including the degree of amortization and options for providing process energy needs. As with new plants, heat and power for CO2 capture are usually assumed to be provided by the base (reference) plant, resulting in a sizeable (30 to 40%) plant output reduction. Other studies assume that an auxiliary gas-fired boiler is constructed to provide the CO2 capture steam requirements and (in some cases) additional power. Low natural gas prices can make this option more attractive than plant output reduction (based on COE), but such systems yield lower CO2 reductions (around 60%) since the emissions from natural gas combustion are typically not captured. For this reason, the avoided cost values for this option are not directly comparable to those with higher CO2 reductions. These results indicate that new power plants equipped with CO2 capture are likely to be high-efficiency supercritical units, which yield lowest overall costs. The worldwide use of supercritical units (without capture) with current usage at 155 GWe (Section 3.1.2.2), is rapidly increasing in several regions of the world and, as seen in Table 3.7, the preponderance of recent studies of CO2 capture are based on supercritical units using bituminous coals. For these plants, Table 3.7 shows that capture systems increase the capital cost by 44-74% and the COE by 42-66% (18-34 US$ MWh-1). The major factors contributing to these ranges were differences in plant size, capacity factor and fixed charge factor. New or improved capture systems and power plant designs that promise to further reduce the costs of CO2 capture are discussed later in Section 3.7.7. First, however, we examine CO2 capture costs at existing plants. Also reflected in Table 3.8 is the option of rebuilding an existing boiler and steam turbine as a supercritical unit to gain efficiency improvements in conjunction with CO2 capture. One recent study (Gibbins et al., 2005) suggests this option could be economically attractive in conjunction with CO2 capture since the more efficient unit minimizes the cost of capture and yields a greater net power output and a lower COE compared to a simple retrofit. The use of a new and less energy-intensive capture unit yields further cost reductions in this study. Another recent study similarly concluded that the most economical approach to CO2 capture for an existing coal-fired plant was to combine CO2 capture with repowering the unit with an ultra-supercritical steam system (Simbeck, 2004). One additional option, repowering an existing unit with a coal gasifier, is discussed later in Section 3.7.6.2. 3.7.5.2 Existing coal-fired plants Compared to the study of new plants, CO2 capture options for existing power plants have received relatively little study to date. Table 3.8 summarizes the assumptions and results of several studies estimating the cost of retrofitting an amine-based CO2 capture system to an existing coal-fired power plant. Several factors significantly affect the economics of retrofits, especially the age, smaller sizes and lower efficiencies typical of existing plants relative to new builds. The energy requirement for CO2 capture also is usually higher because of less efficient heat integration for sorbent regeneration. All of these factors lead to higher overall costs. Existing plants not yet equipped with a flue gas desulphurization (FGD) system for SO2 control also must be retrofitted or upgraded for high-efficiency sulphur capture in addition to the CO2 capture device. For plants with high NOx levels, a NO2 removal system also may be required to minimize solvent loss from reactions with acid gases. Finally, site-specific difficulties, such as land availability, access to plant areas and the need for special ductwork, tend to further increase the capital cost of any retrofit project relative to an equivalent new 3.7.5.3 Natural gas-fired power plants Power plants fuelled by natural gas may include gas-fired boilers, simple-cycle gas turbines, or natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) units. The current operating capacity in use globally is 333 GWe for gas-fired boilers, 214 GWe for simple cycle gas turbines and 339 GWe for NGCC (IEA WEO, 2004). The absence of sulphur and other impurities in natural gas reduces the capital costs associated with auxiliary flue gas clean-up systems required for amine-based CO2 capture technology. On the other hand, the lower concentration of CO2 in gas-fired units tends to increase the cost per tonne of CO2 captured or avoided relative to coal-fired units. Table 3.9 summarizes the assumptions and cost results of several recent studies of CO2 capture at gas-fired combined cycle power plants ranging in size from approximately 300-700 MW. Relative to reference plants without capture, to achieve netPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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