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Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 185 of way are secured, but a decision to construct will not come before a legal right to construct a pipeline is secured and all governmental regulations met. Onshore and underwater CO2 pipelines are constructed in the same way as hydrocarbon pipelines, and for both there is an established and well- understood base of engineering experience. Subsection 4.2.5 describes underwater construction. plots the diameters and maximum depths of major deepwater pipelines constructed up to 2004. The difficulty of construction is roughly proportional to the depth multiplied by the diameter, and the maximum value of that product has multiplied fourfold since 1980. Still larger and deeper pipelines are technically feasible with today’s technology. 4.2.6 Operations The construction phases of a land pipeline are outlined below. Some of the operations can take place concurrently. Environmental and social factors may influence the season of the year in which construction takes place. The land is cleared and the trench excavated. The longest lead items come first: urban areas, river and road crossings. Pipe is received into the pipe yard and welded into double joints (24 m long); transported to staging areas for placement along the pipe route, welded, tested, coated and wrapped, and then lowered into the trench. A hydrostatic test is carried out, and the line is dried. The trench is then backfilled, and the land and the vegetation restored. 4.2.5 Underwater pipelines Operational aspects of pipelines are divided into three areas: daily operations, maintenance, and health, safety and environment. Operations of a CO2 pipeline in the USA, for instance, must follow federal operations guidelines (49 CFR 195). Overall operational considerations include training, inspections, safety integration, signs and pipeline markers, public education, damage prevention programmes, communication, facility security and leak detection. Pipelines outside the USA generally have similar regulatory operational requirements. Most underwater pipelines are constructed by the lay-barge method, in which 12 or 24 m lengths of pipe are brought to a dynamically positioned or anchored barge, and welded one by one to the end of the pipeline. The barge moves slowly forward, and the pipeline leaves the barge over the stern, and passes first over a support structure (‘stinger’) and then down through the water in a suspended span, until it reaches the seabed. Some lines up to 450 mm diameter are constructed by the reel method, in which the pipeline is welded together onshore, wound onto a reel on a ship, and then unwound from the reel into its final position. Some short lines and lines for shore crossings in shallow water are constructed by various tow and pull methods, in which the line is welded together onshore and then pulled into its final location. Personnel form a central part of operations and must be qualified. Personnel are required to be continuously trained and updated on safety procedures, including safety procedures that apply to contractors working on or near the pipeline, as well as to the public. If the design requires that the pipeline be trenched, that is usually done after it has been laid on the seabed, by a jetting sled, a plough or a mechanical cutting device that is pulled along the line. On the other hand, in shore crossings and in very shallow water the trench is often excavated before the pipeline is laid, and that is done by dredgers, backhoes or draglines in soft sediments, or in rock by blasting followed by clamshell excavators. Many shore crossings are drilled horizontally from the shore; this procedure eliminates many uncertainties associated with the surf zone, and reduces the environmental impact of construction. Long-distance pipelines are instrumented at intervals so that the flow can be monitored. The monitoring points, compressor stations and block valves are tied back to a central operations centre. Computers control much of the operation, and manual intervention is necessary only in unusual upsets or emergency conditions. The system has inbuilt redundancies to prevent loss of operational capability if a component fails. Operations include daily maintenance, scheduled planning and policies for inspecting, maintaining and repairing all equipment on the line and the pipeline itself, as well as supporting the line and pipeline. This equipment and support includes valves, compressors, pumps, tanks, rights of way, public signs and line markers as well as periodic pipeline flyovers. Underwater connections are made by various kinds of mechanical connection systems, by hyperbaric welding (in air under the local hydrostatic pressure) or by lifting the pipe ends above the surface, welding them together and lowering the connected line to the bottom. These technologies are established and understood (Palmer and King, 2004). Underwater pipelines up to 1422 mm in diameter have been constructed in many different environments, and pipelines have been laid in depths up to 2200 m. Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Pipelines in deep water.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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