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186 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Pipelines are cleaned and inspected by ‘pigs’, piston-like devices driven along the line by the gas pressure. Pigs have reached a high level of sophistication, and can measure internal corrosion, mechanical deformation, external corrosion, the precise position of the line, and the development of spans in underwater lines. Further functionality will develop as pig technology evolves, and there is no reason why pigs used for hydrocarbon pipelines should not be used for carbon dioxide. associated liquefaction and intermediate storage facilities. 4.3.3 Design Pipelines are also monitored externally. Land pipelines are inspected from the air, at intervals agreed between the operator and the regulatory authorities. Inspection from the air detects unauthorized excavation or construction before damage occurs. Currently, underwater pipelines are monitored by remotely operated vehicles, small unmanned submersibles that move along the line and make video records, and in the future, by autonomous underwater vehicles that do not need to be connected to a mother ship by a cable. Some pipelines have independent leak detection systems that find leaks acoustically or by measuring chemical releases, or by picking up pressure changes or small changes in mass balance. This technology is available and routine. For the design of hull and tank structure of liquid gas transport ships, such as LPG carriers and LNG carriers, the International Maritime Organization adopted the International Gas Carrier Code in order to prevent the significant secondary damage from accidental damage to ships. CO2 tankers are designed and constructed under this code. 4.3 Ships for CO2 transportation 4.3.1 Marine transportation system There are three types of tank structure for liquid gas transport ships: pressure type, low temperature type and semi-refrigerated type. The pressure type is designed to prevent the cargo gas from boiling under ambient air conditions. On the other hand, the low temperature type is designed to operate at a sufficiently low temperature to keep cargo gas as a liquid under the atmospheric pressure. Most small gas carriers are pressure type, and large LPG and LNG carriers are of the low temperature type. The low temperature type is suitable for mass transport because the tank size restriction is not severe. The semi-refrigerated type, including the existing CO2 carriers, is designed taking into consideration the combined conditions of temperature and pressure necessary for cargo gas to be kept as a liquid. Some tankers such as semi-refrigerated LPG carriers are designed for applicability to the range of cargo conditions between normal temperature/high pressure and low temperature/atmospheric pressure. Carbon dioxide is continuously captured at the plant on land, but the cycle of ship transport is discrete, and so a marine transportation system includes temporary storage on land and a loading facility. The capacity, service speed, number of ships and shipping schedule will be planned, taking into consideration, the capture rate of CO2, transport distance, and social and technical restrictions. This issue is, of course, not specific to the case of CO2 transport; CO2 transportation by ship has a number of similarities to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) transportation by ship. Annex I to this report includes the CO2 phase diagram. At atmospheric pressure, CO2 is in gas or solid phase, depending on the temperature. Lowering the temperature at atmospheric pressure cannot by itself cause CO2 to liquefy, but only to make so-called ‘dry ice’ or solid CO2. Liquid CO2 can only exist at a combination of low temperature and pressures well above atmospheric pressure. Hence, a CO2 cargo tank should be of the pressure-type or semi-refrigerated. The semi-refrigerated type is preferred by ship designers, and the design point of the cargo tank would be around –54 oC per 6 bar to –50oC per 7 bar, which is near the point of CO2. In a standard design, semi-refrigerated type LPG carriers operate at a design point of –50°C and 7 bar, when transporting a volume of 22,000 m3. What happens at the delivery point depends on the CO2 storage system. If the delivery point is onshore, the CO2 is unloaded from the ships into temporary storage tanks. If the delivery point is offshore – as in the ocean storage option – ships might unload to a platform, to a floating storage facility (similar to a floating production and storage facility routinely applied to offshore petroleum production), to a single-buoy mooring or directly to a storage system. Carbon dioxide could leak into the atmosphere during transportation. The total loss to the atmosphere from ships is between 3 and 4% per 1000 km, counting both boil-off and exhaust from the ship’s engines; both components could be reduced by capture and liquefaction, and recapture onshore would reduce the loss to 1 to 2% per 1000 km. 4.3.2 Existing experience The use of ships for transporting CO2 across the sea is today in an embryonic stage. Worldwide there are only four small ships used for this purpose. These ships transport liquefied food- grade CO2 from large point sources of concentrated carbon dioxide such as ammonia plants in northern Europe to coastal distribution terminals in the consuming regions. From these distribution terminals CO2 is transported to the customers either by tanker trucks or in pressurized cylinders. Design work is ongoing in Norway and Japan for larger CO2 ships and their 4.3.4 Construction Carbon dioxide tankers are constructed using the same technology as existing liquefied gas carriers. The latest LNG carriers reach more than 200,000 m3 capacity. (Such a vessel could carry 230 kt of liquid CO2.) The same type of yards that today build LPG and LNG ships can carry out the construction of a CO2 tanker. The actual building time will be from one to two years, depending on considerations such as the ship’s size.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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