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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 209 Reaction of the dissolved CO2 with minerals can be rapid (days) in the case of some carbonate minerals, but slow (hundreds to thousands of years) in the case of silicate minerals. mineralization. This is significant for leakage risk assessment (Section 5.7) because once CO2 is dissolved, it is unavailable for leakage as a discrete phase. Modelling by Holtz (2002) suggests more than 60% of CO2 is trapped by residual CO2 trapping by the end of the injection phase (100% after 1000 years), although laboratory experiments (Section 5.2.1) suggest somewhat lower percentages. When CO2 is trapped at residual saturation, it is effectively immobile. However, should there be leakage through the caprock, then saturated brine may degas as it is depressurized, although, as illustrated in Figure 5.7 the tendency of saturated brine is to sink rather than to rise. Reaction of the CO2 with formation water and rocks may result in reaction products that affect the porosity of the rock and the Formation of carbonate minerals occurs from continued reaction of the bicarbonate ions with calcium, magnesium and iron from silicate minerals such as clays, micas, chlorites and feldspars present in the rock matrix (Gunter et al., 1993, 1997). Perkins et al. (2005) estimate that over 5000 years, all the CO2 injected into the Weyburn Oil Field will dissolve or be converted to carbonate minerals within the storage formation. Equally importantly, they show that the caprock and overlying rock formations have an even greater capacity for Box 5.4 Storage security mechanisms and changes over time. When the CO2 is injected, it forms a bubble around the injection well, displacing the mobile water and oil both laterally and vertically within the injection horizon. The interactions between the water and CO2 phase allow geochemical trapping mechanisms to take effect. Over time, CO2 that is not immobilized by residual CO2 trapping can react with in situ fluid to form carbonic acid (i.e., H2CO3 called solubility trapping – dominates from tens to hundreds of years). Dissolved CO2 can eventually react with reservoir minerals if an appropriate mineralogy is encountered to form carbon-bearing ionic species (i.e., HCO3– and CO32– called ionic trapping – dominates from hundreds to thousands of years). Further breakdown of these minerals could precipitate new carbonate minerals that would fix injected CO2 in its most secure state (i.e., mineral trapping – dominates over thousands to millions of years). Four injection scenarios are shown in Figure 5.10. Scenarios A, B and C show injection into hydrodynamic traps, essentially systems open to lateral flow of fluids and gas within the injection horizon. Scenario D represents injection into a physically restricted flow regime, similar to those of many producing and depleted oil and gas reservoirs. In Scenario A, the injected CO2 is never physically contained laterally. The CO2 plume migrates within the injection horizon and is ultimately consumed via all types of geochemical trapping mechanisms, including carbonate mineralization. Mineral and ionic trapping dominate. The proportions of CO2 stored in each geochemical trap will depend strongly on the in situ mineralogy, pore space structure and water composition. In Scenario B, the migration of the CO2 plume is similar to that of Scenario A, but the mineralogy and water chemistry are such that reaction of CO2 with minerals is minor and solubility trapping and hydrodynamic trapping dominate. In Scenario C, the CO2 is injected into a zone initially similar to Scenario B. However, during lateral migration the CO2 plume migrates into a zone of physical heterogeneity in the injection horizon. This zone may be characterized by variable porosity and permeability caused by a facies change. The facies change is accompanied by a more reactive mineralogy that causes an abrupt change in path. In the final state, ionic and mineral trapping predominate. Scenario D illustrates CO2 injection into a well- constrained flow zone but, similar to Scenario B, it does not have in-situ fluid chemistry and mineralogy suitable for ionic or mineral trapping. The bulk of the injected CO2 is trapped geochemically via solubility trapping and physically via stratigraphic or structural trapping. Figure 5.10 Storage expressed as a combination of physical and geochemical trapping. The level of security is proportional to distance from the origin. Dashed lines are examples of million-year pathways, discussed in Box 5.4.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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