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216 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Box 5.6 The Rangely, Colorado, CO2-EOR Project. The Rangely CO2-EOR Project is located in Colorado, USA and is operated by Chevron. The CO2 is purchased from the Exxon-Mobil LaBarge natural gas processing facility in Wyoming and transported 283 km via pipeline to the Rangely field. Additional spurs carry CO2 over 400 km from LaBarge to Lost Soldier and Wertz fields in central Wyoming, currently ending at the Salt Creek field in eastern Wyoming. The sandstone reservoir of the Rangely field has been CO2 flooded, by the water alternating gas (WAG) process, since 1986. Primary and secondary recovery, carried out between 1944 and 1986, recovered 1.9 US billion barrels (302 million m3) of oil (21% of the original oil in place). With use of CO2 floods, ultimate tertiary recovery of a further 129 million barrels (21 million m3) of oil (6.8% of original oil in place) is expected. Average daily CO2 injection in 2003 was equivalent to 2.97 MtCO2 yr-1, with production of 13,913 barrels oil per day. Of the total 2.97 Mt injected, recycled gas comprised around 2.29 Mt and purchased gas about 0.74 Mt. Cumulative CO2 stored to date is estimated at 22.2 Mt. A simplified flow diagram for the Rangely field is given in Figure 5.15. The Rangely field, covering an area of 78 km2, is an asymmetric anticline. A major northeast-to-southwest fault in the eastern half of the field and other faults and fractures significantly influence fluid movement within the reservoir. The sandstone reservoirs have an average gross and effective thickness of 160 m and 40 m, respectively and are comprised of six persistent producing sandstone horizons (depths of 1675–1980 m) with average porosity of 12%. Permeability averages 10 mD (Hefner and Barrow, 1992). By the end of 2003, there were 248 active injectors, of which 160 are used for CO2 injection and 348 active producers. Produced gas is processed through two parallel single-column natural-gas-liquids recovery facilities and subsequently compressed to approximately 14.5 MPa. Compressed-produced gas (recycled gas) is combined with purchased CO2 for reinjection mostly by the WAG process. Carbon dioxide-EOR operation in the field maintains compliance with government regulations for production, injection, protection of potable water formations, surface use, flaring and venting. A number of protocols have been instituted to ensure containment of CO2 – for example, pre-injection well-integrity verification, a radioactive tracer survey run on the first injection, injection-profile tracer surveys, mechanical integrity tests, soil gas surveys and round-the-clock field monitoring. Surface release from the storage reservoir is below the detection limit of 170 t yr–1 or an annual leakage rate of less than 0.00076% of the total stored CO2 (Klusman, 2003). Methane leakage is estimated to be 400 t yr–1, possibly due to increased CO2 injection pressure above original reservoir pressure. The water chemistry portion of the study indicates that the injected CO2 is dissolving in the water and may be responsible for dissolution of ferroan calcite and dolomite. There is currently no evidence of mineral precipitation that may result in mineral storage of CO2. oil, other preferred criteria for both types of flooding include relatively thin reservoirs (less than 20 m), high reservoir angle, homogenous formation and low vertical permeability. For horizontal reservoirs, the absence of natural water flow, major gas cap and major natural fractures are preferred. Reservoir thickness and permeability are not critical factors. Reservoir heterogeneity also affects CO2 storage efficiency. The density difference between the lighter CO2 and the reservoir oil and water leads to movement of the CO2 along the top of the reservoir, particularly if the reservoir is relatively homogeneous and has high permeability, negatively affecting the CO2 storage and oil recovery. Consequently, reservoir heterogeneity may have a positive effect, slowing down the rise of CO2 to the top of the reservoir and forcing it to spread laterally, giving more complete invasion of the formation and greater storage potential (Bondor, 1992; Kovscek, 2002; Flett et al., 2005). Figure 5.15 Injection of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) with some storage of retained CO (after IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Although up to 95% of original gas in place can be produced, 2 Programme). The CO2 that is produced with the oil is separated and re- enhance gas recovery by repressurizing the reservoir (van der Burgt et al., 1992; Koide and Yamazaki, 2001; Oldenburg et al., 2001). Enhanced gas recovery has so far been implemented only at pilot scale (Gaz de France K12B project, Netherlands, injected back into the formation. Recycling of produced CO2 decreases the amount of CO Figuur 5.15 2 that must be purchased and avoids emissions to the atmosphere. 5.3.2.3 Enhanced gas recovery CO couldpotentiallybeinjectedintodepletedgasreservoirsto 2PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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