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220 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage 5.3.5.3 Salt caverns Storage of CO2 in salt caverns created by solution mining could use the technology developed for the storage of liquid natural gas and petroleum products in salt beds and domes in Western Canada and the Gulf of Mexico (Dusseault et al., 2004). A single salt cavern can reach more than 500,000 m3. Storage of CO2 in salt caverns differs from natural gas and compressed air storage because in the latter case, the caverns are cyclically pressurized and depressurized on a daily-to-annual time scale, whereas CO2 storage must be effective on a centuries-to-millennia time scale. Owing to the creep properties of salt, a cavern filled with supercritical CO2 will decrease in volume, until the pressure inside the cavern equalizes the external stress in the salt bed (Bachu and Dusseault, 2005). Although a single cavern 100 m in diameter may hold only about 0.5 Mt of high density CO2, arrays of caverns could be built for large-scale storage. Cavern sealing is important in preventing leakage and collapse of cavern roofs, which could release large quantities of gas (Katzung et al., 1996). Advantages of CO2 storage in salt caverns include high capacity per unit volume (kgCO2 m–3), efficiency and injection flow rate. Disadvantages are the potential for CO2 release in the case of system failure, the relatively small capacity of most individual caverns and the environmental problems of disposing of brine from a solution cavity. Salt caverns can also be used for temporary storage of CO2 in collector and distributor systems between sources and sinks of CO2. 5.3.5.4 Abandoned mines The suitability of mines for CO2 storage depends on the nature and sealing capacity of the rock in which mining occurs. Heavily fractured rock, typical of igneous and metamorphic terrains, would be difficult to seal. Mines in sedimentary rocks may offer some CO2-storage opportunities (e.g., potash and salt mines or stratabound lead and zinc deposits). Abandoned coal mines offer the opportunity to store CO2, with the added benefit of adsorption of CO2 onto coal remaining in the mined- out area (Piessens and Dusar, 2004). However, the rocks above coal mines are strongly fractured, which increases the risk of gas leakage. In addition, long-term, safe, high-pressure, CO2-resistant shaft seals have not been developed and any shaft failure could result in release of large quantities of CO2. Nevertheless, in Colorado, USA, there is a natural gas storage facility in an abandoned coal mine. 5.3.6 Effects of impurities on storage capacity The presence of impurities in the CO2 gas stream affects the engineering processes of capture, transport and injection (Chapters 3 and 4), as well as the trapping mechanisms and capacity for CO2 storage in geological media. Some contaminants in the CO2 stream (e.g., SOx, NOx, H2S) may require classification as hazardous, imposing different requirements for injection and disposal than if the stream were pure (Bergman et al., 1997). Gas impurities in the CO2 stream affect the compressibility of the injected CO2 (and hence the volume needed for storing a given amount) and reduce the capacity for storage in free phase, because of the storage space taken by these gases. Additionally, depending on the type of geological storage, the presence of impurities may have some other specific effects. In EOR operations, impurities affect the oil recovery because they change the solubility of CO2 in oil and the ability of CO2 to vaporize oil components (Metcalfe, 1982). Methane and nitrogen decrease oil recovery, whereas hydrogen sulphide, propane and heavier hydrocarbons have the opposite effect (Alston et al., 1985; Sebastian et al., 1985). The presence of SOx may improve oil recovery, whereas the presence of NOx can retard miscibility and thus reduce oil recovery (Bryant and Lake, 2005) and O2 can react exothermally with oil in the reservoir. In the case of CO2 storage in deep saline formations, the presence of gas impurities affects the rate and amount of CO2 storage through dissolution and precipitation. Additionally, leaching of heavy metals from the minerals in the rock matrix by SO2 or O2 contaminants is possible. Experience to date with acid gas injection (Section 5.2.4.2) suggests that the effect of impurities is not significant, although Knauss et al. (2005) suggest that SOx injection with CO2 produces substantially different chemical, mobilization and mineral reactions. Clarity is needed about the range of gas compositions that industry might wish to store, other than pure CO2 (Anheden et al., 2005), because although there might be environmental issues to address, there might be cost savings in co-storage of CO2 and contaminants. In the case of CO2 storage in coal seams, impurities may also have a positive or negative effect, similar to EOR operations. If a stream of gas containing H2S or SO2 is injected into coal beds, these will likely be preferentially adsorbed because they have a higher affinity to coal than CO2, thus reducing the storage capacity for CO2 (Chikatamarla and Bustin, 2003). If oxygen is present, it will react irreversibly with the coal, reducing the sorption surface and, hence, the adsorption capacity. On the other hand, some impure CO2 waste streams, such as coal-fired flue gas (i.e., primarily N2 + CO2), may be used for ECBM because the CO2 is stripped out (retained) by the coal reservoir, because it has higher sorption selectivity than N2 and CH4. 5.3.7 Geographical distribution and storage capacity estimates Identifying potential sites for CO2 geological storage and estimating their capacity on a regional or local scale should conceptually be a simple task. The differences between the various mechanisms and means of trapping (Sections 5.2.2) suggest in principle the following methods: • For volumetric trapping, capacity is the product of available volume (pore space or cavity) and CO2 density at in situ pressure and temperature; • For solubility trapping, capacity is the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the formation fluid (oil in oil reservoirs, brackish water or brine in saline formations); • For adsorption trapping, capacity is the product of coal volume and its capacity for adsorbing CO2;PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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