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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 231 Figure 5.20 Typical CO2 injection well and wellhead configuration. a backup injection well or methods to safely vent CO2 to the atmosphere. have developed regulations for well ‘abandonment’ or ‘closure’ (for example, United States Code of Federal Regulations 40 Part 144 and Alberta Energy and Utilities Board, 2003). These procedures usually require placing cement or mechanical plugs in all or part of the well. Extra care is usually taken to seal the well adjacent to drinking water aquifers. Examples of well abandonment procedures for cased and uncased wells are shown in Figure 5.21. Tests are often required to locate the depth of the plugs and test their mechanical strength under pressure. Proper maintenance of CO2 injection wells is necessary to avoid leakage and well failures. Several practical procedures can be used to reduce probabilities of CO2 blow-out (uncontrolled flow) and mitigate the adverse effects if one should occur. These include periodic wellbore integrity surveys on drilled injection wells, improved blow-out prevention (BOP) maintenance, installation of additional BOP on suspect wells, improved crew awareness, contingency planning and emergency response training (Skinner, 2003). It is expected that abandonment procedures for CO2 wells could broadly follow the abandonment methodology used for oil and gas wells and acid-gas disposal wells. However, special care has to be taken to use sealing plugs and cement that are resistant to degradation from CO2. Carbon dioxide-resistant cements have been developed for oil field and geothermal applications. It has been suggested that removing the casing and the liner penetrating the caprock could avoid corrosion of the steel that may later create channels for leakage. The production casing can be removed by pulling or drilling (milling) it out. After removing the casing, a cement plug can be put into the open borehole, as illustrated in Figure 5.21. For CO2 injection through existing and old wells, key factors include the mechanical condition of the well and quality of the cement and well maintenance. A leaking wellbore annulus can be a pathway for CO2 migration. Detailed logging programmes for checking wellbore integrity can be conducted by the operator to protect formations and prevent reservoir cross-flow. A well used for injection (Figure 5.20) must be equipped with a packer to isolate pressure to the injection interval. All materials used in injection wells should be designed to anticipate peak volume, pressure and temperature. In the case of wet gas (containing free water), use of corrosion-resistant material is essential. The cement plug will act as the main barrier to future CO2 migration. A major issue is related to the sealing quality of the cement plug and the bonding quality with the penetrated caprock. Microchannels created near the wellbore during drilling or milling operations should be sealed with cement. Fluid could also be flushed into the storage reservoir to displace the CO2 and help to improve the cementing quality and bonding to the sealing caprock. Casing protective materials and alternative casing materials, such as composites, should also be evaluated 5.5.2 Well abandonment procedures Abandonment procedures for oil, gas and injection wells are designed to protect drinking water aquifers from contamination. If a well remains open after it is no longer in use, brines, hydrocarbons or CO2 could migrate up the well and into shallow drinking water aquifers. To avoid this, many countriesPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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