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236 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage table 5.4 Summary of direct and indirect techniques that can be used to monitor CO2 storage projects. measurement technique measurement parameters Example applications Introduced and natural tracers Travel time Partitioning of CO2 into brine or oil Identification sources of CO2 Tracing movement of CO2 in the storage formation Quantifying solubility trapping Tracing leakage Water composition CO2, HCO3-, CO32-· Major ions Trace elements Salinity Quantifying solubility and mineral trapping Quantifying CO2-water-rock interactions Detecting leakage into shallow groundwater aquifers Subsurface pressure Formation pressure Annulus pressure Groundwater aquifer pressure Control of formation pressure below fracture gradient Wellbore and injection tubing condition Leakage out of the storage formation Well logs Brine salinity Sonic velocity CO2 saturation Tracking CO2 movement in and above storage formation Tracking migration of brine into shallow aquifers Calibrating seismic velocities for 3D seismic surveys Time-lapse 3D seismic imaging P and S wave velocity Reflection horizons Seismic amplitude attenuation Tracking CO2 movement in and above storage formation Vertical seismic profiling and crosswell seismic imaging P and S wave velocity Reflection horizons Seismic amplitude attenuation Detecting detailed distribution of CO2 in the storage formation Detection leakage through faults and fractures Passive seismic monitoring Location, magnitude and source characteristics of seismic events Development of microfractures in formation or caprock CO2 migration pathways Electrical and electromagnetic techniques Formation conductivity Electromagnetic induction Tracking movement of CO2 in and above the storage formation Detecting migration of brine into shallow aquifers Time-lapse gravity measurements Density changes caused by fluid displacement Detect CO2 movement in or above storage formation CO2 mass balance in the subsurface Land surface deformation Tilt Vertical and horizontal displacement using interferometry and GPS Detect geomechanical effects on storage formation and caprock Locate CO2 migration pathways Visible and infrared imaging from satellite or planes Hyperspectral imaging of land surface Detect vegetative stress CO2 land surface flux monitoring using flux chambers or eddycovariance CO2 fluxes between the land surface and atmosphere Detect, locate and quantify CO2 releases Soil gas sampling Soil gas composition Isotopic analysis of CO2 Detect elevated levels of CO2 Identify source of elevated soil gas CO2 Evaluate ecosystem impacts A more accurate approach is to use tracers (gases or gas isotopes not present in the reservoir system) injected into specific wells. The timing of the arrival of the tracers at production or monitoring wells will indicate the path the CO2 is taking through the reservoir. Monitoring wells may also be used to passively record the movement of CO2 past the well, although it should be noted that the use of such invasive techniques potentially creates new pathways for leakage to the surface. The movement of tracers or isotopically distinct carbon (in the CO2) to production or monitoring wells provides some indication of the lateral distribution of the CO2 in a storage reservoir. In thick formations, multiple sampling along vertical monitoring or production wells would provide some indication of the vertical distribution of the CO2 in the formation. With many wells and frequently in horizontal wells, the lack of casing (open hole completion) precludes direct measurement of the location of CO2 influx along the length of the well, although it may be possible to run surveys to identify the location of major influx. Direct measurement of migration beyond the storage site can be achieved in a number of ways, depending on where the migration takes the CO2. Comparison between baseline surveys of water quality and/or isotopic composition can be used to identify new CO2 arrival at a specific location from natural CO2 pre-existing at that site. Geochemical techniques can also be used to understand more about the CO2 and its movement through the reservoir (Czernichowski-Lauriol et al., 1996; Gunter et al., 2000; Wilson and Monea, 2005). The chemical changes that occur in the reservoir fluids indicate the increase in acidity and the chemical effects of this change, in particular the bicarbonate ion levels in the fluids. At the surface, direct measurement canPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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