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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 239 geochemical interactions with the reservoir rock and to clearly identify the integrity of the reservoir as a container for long- term storage. Additionally, there is a programme to evaluate the potential role of existing active and abandoned wells in leakage. This includes an analysis of the age of the wells, the use of existing information on cement type and bonding effectiveness and work to better understand the effect of historical and changing fluid chemistry on the cement and steel casing of the well. As noted above, the injection pressure is carefully monitored to ensure that there are no problems. A rapid increase in pressure could indicate problems with the well, although industry interpretations suggest that it is more likely to be loss of injectivity in the reservoir. The Weyburn summary report (Wilson and Monea, 2005) describes the overall results of the research project, in particular the effectiveness of the seismic monitoring for determining the spread of CO2 and of the geochemical analysis for determining when CO2 was about to reach the production wells. Geochemical data also help explain the processes under way in the reservoir itself and the time required to establish a new chemical equilibrium. Figure 5.24 illustrates the change in the chemical composition of the formation water, which forms the basis for assessing the extent to which solubility and mineral trapping will contribute to long-term storage security (Perkins et al., 2005). The initial change in δ13CHCO3 is the result of the supercritical CO2 dissolving into the water. This change is then muted by the short-term dissolution of reservoir carbonate minerals, as indicated by the increase of calcium concentration, shown in Figure 5.24. In particular, the geochemistry confirms the storage of CO2 in water in the bicarbonate phase and also CO2 in the oil phase. Temperature logs and ‘noise’ logs are also often run on a routine basis to detect well failures in natural gas storage projects. Rapid changes in temperature along the length of the wellbore are diagnostic of casing leaks. Similarly, ‘noise’ associated with leaks in the injection tubing can be used to locate small leaks (Lippmann and Benson, 2003). 5.6.4 Technologies for monitoring injection well integrity Nevertheless, if CO2 does migrate into a groundwater aquifer, potential impacts can be assessed by collecting groundwater samples and analyzing them for major ions (e.g., Na, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Cl, Si, HCO3– and SO42–), pH, alkalinity, stable isotopes (e.g., 13C, 14C, 18O, 2H) and gases, including hydrocarbon gases, CO2 and its associated isotopes (Gunter et al., 1998). Additionally, if shallow groundwater contamination occurs, samples could be analyzed for trace elements such as arsenic and lead, which are mobilized by acidic water (Section 5.5). Methods such as atomic absorption and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy self-potential can be used to accurately measure water quality. Less sensitive field tests or other analytical methods are also available (Clesceri et al., 1998). Standard analytical methods are available to monitor all of these parameters, including the possibility of continuous real-time monitoring for some of the geochemical parameters. A number of standard technologies are available for monitoring the integrity of active injection wells. Cement bond logs are used to assess the bond and the continuity of the cement around well casing. Periodic cement bond logs can help detect deterioration in the cemented portion of the well and may also indicate any chemical interaction of the acidized formation fluids with the cement. The initial use of cement bond logs as part of the well- integrity testing can indicate problems with bonding and even the absence of cement. Prior to converting a well to other uses, such as CO2 injection, the well usually undergoes testing to ensure its integrity under pressure. These tests are relatively straightforward, with the well being sealed top and bottom (or in the zone to be tested), pressured up and its ability to hold pressure measured. In general, particularly on land, the well will be abandoned if it fails the test and a new well will be drilled, as opposed to attempting any remediation on the defective well. Natural tracers (isotopes of C, O, H and noble gases associated with the injected CO2) and introduced tracers (noble gases, SF6 and perfluorocarbons) also may provide insight into the impacts of storage projects on groundwater (Emberley et al., 2002; Nimz and Hudson, 2005). (SF6 and perfluorocarbons are greenhouse gases with extremely high global warming potentials and therefore caution is warranted in the use of these gases, to avoid their release to the atmosphere.) Natural tracers such as C and O isotopes may be able to link changes in groundwater quality directly to the stored CO2 by ‘fingerprinting’ the CO2, thus distinguishing storage-induced changes from changes in groundwater quality caused by other factors. Introduced tracers such as perfluorocarbons that can be detected at very low concentrations (1 part per trillion) may also be useful for Injection takes place through a pipe that is lowered into the well and packed off above the perforations or open-hole portion of the well to ensure that the injectant reaches the appropriate level. The pressure in the annulus, the space between the casing and the injection pipe, can be monitored to ensure the integrity of the packer, casing and the injection pipe. Changes in pressure or gas composition in the annulus will alert the operator to problems. 5.6.5 Technologies for monitoring local environmental effects 5.6.5.1 Groundwater If CO2 leaks from the deep geological storage formation and migrates upwards into overlying shallow groundwater aquifers, methods are available to detect and assess changes in groundwater quality. Of course, it is preferable to identify leakage shortly after it leaks and long before the CO2 enters the groundwater aquifer, so that measures can be taken to intervene and prevent further migration (see Section 5.7.6). Seismic monitoring methods and potentially others (described in Section 5.6.3.2), can be used to identify leaks before the CO2 reaches the groundwater zone.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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