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240 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage determining whether CO2 has leaked and is responsible for changes in groundwater quality. Synthetic tracers could be added periodically to determine movement in the reservoir or leakage paths, while natural tracers are present in the reservoir or introduced gases. 5.6.5.2 Air quality and atmospheric fluxes variability of atmospheric CO2. Infrared detectors measure average CO2 concentration over a given path length, so a diffuse or low-level leak viewed through the atmosphere by satellite would be undetectable. As an example, even large CO2 seeps, such as that at Mammoth Mountain, are difficult to identify today (Martini and Silver, 2002; Pickles, 2005). Aeroplane-based measurement using this same principle may be possible. Carbon dioxide has been measured either directly in the plume by a separate infrared detector or calculated from SO2 measurements and direct ground sampling of the SO2: CO2 ratio for a given volcano or event (Hobbs et al., 1991; USGS, 2001b). Remote-sensing techniques currently under investigation for CO2 detection are LIDAR (light detection and range-finding), a scanning airborne laser and DIAL (differential absorption LIDAR), which looks at reflections from multiple lasers at different frequencies (Hobbs et al., 1991; Menzies et al., 2001). Continuous sensors for monitoring CO2 in air are used in a variety of applications, including HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) systems, greenhouses, combustion emissions measurement and environments in which CO2 is a significant hazard (such as breweries). Such devices rely on infrared detection principles and are referred to as infrared gas analyzers. These gas analyzers are small and portable and commonly used in occupational settings. Most use non- dispersive infrared or Fourier Transform infrared detectors. Both methods use light attenuation by CO2 at a specific wavelength, usually 4.26 microns. For extra assurance and validation of real-time monitoring data, US regulatory bodies, such as NIOSH, OSHA and the EPA, use periodic concentration measurement by gas chromatography. Mass spectrometry is the most accurate method for measuring CO2 concentration, but it is also the least portable. Electrochemical solid state CO2 detectors exist, but they are not cost effective at this time (e.g., Tamura et al., 2001). In summary, monitoring of CO2 for occupational safety is well established. On the other hand, while some promising technologies are under development for environmental monitoring and leak detection, measurement and monitoring approaches on the temporal and space scales relevant to geological storage need improvement to be truly effective. Common field applications in environmental science include the measurement of CO2 concentrations in soil air, flux from soils and ecosystem-scale carbon dynamics. Diffuse soil flux measurements are made by simple infrared analyzers (Oskarsson et al., 1999). The USGS measures CO2 flux on Mammoth Mountain, in California (Sorey et al., 1996; USGS, 2001b). Biogeochemists studying ecosystem-scale carbon cycling use data from CO2 detectors on 2 to 5 m tall towers with wind and temperature data to reconstruct average CO2 flux over large areas. 5.6.5.3 Ecosystems The health of terrestrial and subsurface ecosystems can be determined directly by measuring the productivity and biodiversity of flora and fauna and in some cases (such as at Mammoth Mountain in California) indirectly by using remote- sensing techniques such as hyperspectral imaging (Martini and Silver, 2002; Onstott, 2005; Pickles, 2005). In many areas with natural CO2 seeps, even those with very low CO2 fluxes, the seeps are generally quite conspicuous features. They are easily recognized in populated areas, both in agriculture and natural vegetation, by reduced plant growth and the presence of precipitants of minerals leached from rocks by acidic water. Therefore, any conspicuous site could be quickly and easily checked for excess CO2 concentrations without any large remote-sensing ecosystem studies or surveys. However, in desert environments where vegetation is sparse, direct observation may not be possible. In addition to direct ecosystem observations, analyses of soil gas composition and soil mineralogy can be used to indicate the presence of CO2 and its impact on soil properties. Detection of elevated concentrations of CO2 or evidence of excessive soil weathering would indicate the potential for ecosystem impacts. For aquatic ecosystems, water quality and in particular low pH, would provide a diagnostic for potential impacts. Direct measurements of ecosystem productivity and biodiversity can also be obtained by using standard techniques developed for lakes and marine ecosystems. See Chapter 6 for additional discussion about the impact of elevated CO2 concentrations on marine environments. Miles et al. (2005) concluded that eddy covariance is promising for the monitoring of CO2 storage projects, both for hazardous leaks and for leaks that would damage the economic viability of geological storage. For a storage project of 100 Mt, Miles et al. (2005) estimate that, for leakage rates of 0.01% yr-1, fluxes will range from 1 to 104 times the magnitude of typical ecological fluxes (depending on the size of the area over which CO2 is leaking). Note that a leakage rate of 0.01% yr-1 is equivalent to a fraction retained of 90% over 1000 years. This should easily be detectable if background ecological fluxes are measured in advance to determine diurnal and annual cycles. However, with the technology currently available to us, quantifying leakage rates for tracking returns to the atmosphere is likely to be more of a challenge than identifying leaks in the storage reservoir. Satellite-based remote sensing of CO2 releases to the atmosphere may also be possible, but this method remains challenging because of the long path length through the atmosphere over which CO2 is measured and the inherentPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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