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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 247 table 5.5 Summary of evidence for CO2 retention and release rates. Kind of evidence Average annual fraction released Representative references CO2 in natural formations The lifetime of CO2 in natural formations (>10 million yr in some cases) suggests an average release fraction <10-7 yr-1 for CO2 trapped in sedimentary basins. In highly fractured volcanic systems, rate of release can be many orders of magnitude faster. Stevens et al., 2001a; Baines and Worden, 2001 Oil and gas The presence of buoyant fluids trapped for geological timescales demonstrates the widespread presence of geological systems (seals and caprock) that are capable of confining gasses with release rates <10-7 yr-1. Bradshaw et al., 2005 Natural gas storage The cumulative experience of natural gas storage systems exceeds 10,000 facility-years and demonstrates that operational engineered storage systems can contain methane with release rates of 10-4 to 10-6 yr-1. Lippmann and Benson, 2003; Perry, 2005 Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) More than 100 MtCO2 has been injected for EOR. Data from the few sites where surface fluxes have been measured suggest that fractional release rates are near zero. Moritis, 2002; Klusman, 2003 Models of flow through the undisturbed subsurface Numerical models show that release of CO2 by subsurface flow through undisturbed geological media (excluding wells) may be near zero at appropriately selected storage sites and is very likely <10-6 in the few studies that attempted probabilistic estimates. Walton et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2005; Lindeberg and Bergmo, 2003; Cawley et al., 2005 Models of flow through wells Evidence from a small number of risk assessment studies suggests that average release of CO2 can be 10-5 to 10-7 yr-1 even in existing oil fields with many abandoned wells, such as Weyburn. Simulations with idealized systems with ‘open’ wells show that release rates can exceed 10-2, though in practice such wells would presumably be closed as soon as CO2 was detected. Walton et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2005; Nordbotten et al., 2005b Current CO2 storage projects Data from current CO2 storage projects demonstrate that monitoring techniques are able to detect movement of CO2 in the storage reservoirs. Although no release to the surface has been detected, little can be concluded given the short history and few sites. Wilson and Monea, 2005; Arts et al., 2005; Chadwick, et al., 2005 in the ambient air – and the consequent health and safety risks. Such seeps do not, however, provide a useful basis for estimating the spatial and temporal distribution of CO2 fluxes leaking from a deep storage site, because (in general) the seeps occur in highly fractured volcanic zones, unlike the interiors of stable sedimentary basins, the likely locations for CO2 storage (Section 5.3). 5.7.4.2 Hazards to groundwater from CO2 leakage and Natural seeps are widely distributed in tectonically active regions of the world (Morner and Etiope, 2002). In central Italy, for example, CO2 is emitted from vents, surface degassing and diffuse emission from CO2-rich groundwater. Fluxes from vents range from less than 100 to more than 430 tCO2 day–1, which have shown to be lethal to animal and plants. At Poggio dell’Ulivo, for example, a flux of 200 tCO2 day–1 is emitted from diffuse soil degassing. At least ten people have died from CO2 releases in the region of Lazio over the last 20 years. Increases in dissolved CO2 concentration that might occur as CO2 migrates from a storage reservoir to the surface will alter groundwater chemistry, potentially affecting shallow groundwater used for potable water and industrial and agricultural needs. Dissolved CO2 forms carbonic acid, altering the pH of the solution and potentially causing indirect effects, including mobilization of (toxic) metals, sulphate or chloride; and possibly giving the water an odd odour, colour or taste. In the worst case, contamination might reach dangerous levels, excluding the use of groundwater for drinking or irrigation. Natural and engineered analogues show that it is possible, though improbable, that slow releases from CO2 storage reservoirs will pose a threat to humans. Sudden, catastrophic releases of natural accumulations of CO2 have occurred, associated with volcanism or subsurface mining activities. Thus, they are of limited relevance to understanding risks arising from CO2 stored in sedimentary basins. However, mining or drilling in areas with CO2 storage sites may pose a long-term risk after site abandonment if institutional knowledge and precautions are not in place to avoid accidentally penetrating a storage formation. Wang and Jaffé (2004) used a chemical transport model to investigate the effect of releasing CO2 from a point source at 100 m depth into a shallow water formation that contained a high concentration of mineralized lead (galena). They found that in weakly buffered formations, the escaping CO2 could mobilize sufficient dissolved lead to pose a health hazard over a radius of a few hundred metres from the CO2 source. This analysis represents an extreme upper bound to the risk of metal leaching, since few natural formations have mineral composition so susceptible to the effects of CO2-mediated leaching and one of the expressed requirements of a storage site is to avoid compromising other potential resources, such as mineral deposits. brine displacement The injection of CO2 or any other fluid deep underground necessarily causes changes in pore-fluid pressures and in thePDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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