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252 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage assessment (Section 5.4) and socio-economic and it can be abandoned by following the procedure outlined in Section 5.5.2. environmental factors; • Monitoring to provide assurance that the storage project is Table 5.7 provides an overview of the remediation options available for the leakage scenarios listed above. Some methods are well established, while others are more speculative. Additional detailed studies are needed to further assess the feasibility of applying these to geological storage projects – studies that are based on realistic scenarios, simulations and field studies. performing as expected and to provide early warning in the event that it begins to leak (Section 5.6); • Effective regulatory oversight (Section 5.8); • Implementation of remediation measures to eliminate or limit the causes and impacts of leakage (Section 5.7.7). Risk management strategies must use the inputs from the risk assessment process to enable quantitative estimates of the degree of risk mitigation that can be achieved by various measures and to establish an appropriate level of monitoring, with intervention options available if necessary. Experience from natural gas storage projects and disposal of liquid wastes has demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach to risk mitigation (Wilson et al., 2003; Apps, 2005; Perry, 2005). 5.7.7 Remediation of leaking storage projects Geological storage projects will be selected and operated to avoid leakage. However, in rare cases, leakage may occur and remediation measures will be needed, either to stop the leak or to prevent human or ecosystem impact. Moreover, the availability of remediation options may provide an additional level of assurance to the public that geological storage can be safe and effective. While little effort has focused on remediation options thus far, Benson and Hepple (2005) surveyed the practices used to remediate natural gas storage projects, groundwater and soil contamination, as well as disposal of liquid waste in deep geological formations. On the basis of these surveys, remediation options were identified for most of the leakage scenarios that have been identified, namely: 5.8 Legal issues and public acceptance What legal and regulatory issues might be involved in CO2 storage? How do they differ from one country to the next and from onshore to offshore? What international treaties exist that have bearing on geological storage? How does and how will the public view geological storage? These subjects are addressed in this section, which is primarily concerned with geological storage, both onshore and offshore. 5.8.1 International law This section considers the legal position of geological CO2 storage under international law. Primary sources, namely the relevant treaties, provide the basis for any assessment of the legal position. While States, either individually or jointly, apply their own interpretations to treaty provisions, any determination of the ‘correct’ interpretation will fall to the International Court of Justice or an arbitral tribunal in accordance with the dispute settlement mechanism under that treaty. According to general principles of customary international law, States can exercise their sovereignty in their territories and therefore could engage in activities such as the storage of CO2 (both geological and ocean) in those areas under their jurisdiction. However, if such storage causes transboundary impacts, States have the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. • Leaks within the storage reservoir; • Leakage out of the storage formation up faults and fractures; • Shallow groundwater; • Vadose zone and soil; • Surface fluxes; • CO2 in indoor air, especially basements; • Surface water. More specifically, there exist a number of global and regional environmental treaties, notably those on climate change and the law of the sea and marine environment, which, as presently drafted, could be interpreted as relevant to the permissibility of CO2 storage, particularly offshore geological storage (Table 5.8). Identifying options for remediating leakage of CO2 from active or abandoned wells is particularly important, because they are known vulnerabilities (Gasda et al., 2004; Perry, 2005). Stopping blow-outs or leaks from injection or abandoned wells can be accomplished with standard techniques, such as injecting a heavy mud into the well casing. If the wellhead is not accessible, a nearby well can be drilled to intercept the casing below the ground surface and then pump mud down into the interception well. After control of the well is re-established, the well can be repaired or abandoned. Leaking injection wells can be repaired by replacing the injection tubing and packers. If the annular space behind the casing is leaking, the casing can be perforated to allow injection (squeezing) of cement behind the casing until the leak is stopped. If the well cannot be repaired, Before making any assessment of the compatibility of CO2 storage with the international legal obligations under these treaties, the general nature of such obligations should be recalled – namely that: • Obligations under a treaty fall only on the Parties to that 5.8.1.1 Sources and nature of international obligations treaty; • States take such obligations seriously and so will look to the provisions of such treaties before reaching policy decisions;PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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