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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 253 table 5.7. Remediation options for geological CO2 storage projects (after Benson and Hepple, 2005). Scenario Remediation options Leakage up faults, fractures and spill points • Lower injection pressure by injecting at a lower rate or through more wells (Buschbach and Bond, 1974); • Lower reservoir pressure by removing water or other fluids from the storage structure; • Intersect the leakage with extraction wells in the vicinity of the leak; • Create a hydraulic barrier by increasing the reservoir pressure upstream of the leak; • Lower the reservoir pressure by creating a pathway to access new compartments in the storage reservoir; • Stop injection to stabilize the project; • Stop injection, produce the CO2 from the storage reservoir and reinject it back into a more suitable storage structure. Leakage through active or abandoned wells • Repair leaking injection wells with standard well recompletion techniques such as replacing the injection tubing and packers; • Repair leaking injection wells by squeezing cement behind the well casing to plug leaks behind the casing; • Plug and abandon injection wells that cannot be repaired by the methods listed above; • Stop blow-outs from injection or abandoned wells with standard techniques to ‘kill’ a well such as injecting a heavy mud into the well casing. After control of the well is re-established, the recompletion or abandonment practices described above can be used. If the wellhead is not accessible, a nearby well can be drilled to intercept the casing below the ground surface and ‘kill’ the well by pumping mud down the interception well (DOGGR, 1974). Accumulation of CO2 in the vadose zone and soil gas • Accumulations of gaseous CO2 in groundwater can be removed or at least made immobile, by drilling wells that intersect the accumulations and extracting the CO2. The extracted CO2 could be vented to the atmosphere or reinjected back into a suitable storage site; • Residual CO2 that is trapped as an immobile gas phase can be removed by dissolving it in water and extracting it as a dissolved phase through groundwater extraction well; • CO2 that has dissolved in the shallow groundwater could be removed, if needed, by pumping to the surface and aerating it to remove the CO2. The groundwater could then either be used directly or reinjected back into the groundwate; • If metals or other trace contaminants have been mobilized by acidification of the groundwater, ‘pump-and-treat’ methods can be used to remove them. Alternatively, hydraulic barriers can be created to immobilize and contain the contaminants by appropriately placed injection and extraction wells. In addition to these active methods of remediation, passive methods that rely on natural biogeochemical processes may also be used. Leakage into the vadose zone and accumulation in soil gas (Looney and Falta, 2000) • CO2 can be extracted from the vadose zone and soil gas by standard vapor extraction techniques from horizontal or vertical wells; • Fluxes from the vadose zone to the ground surface could be decreased or stopped by caps or gas vapour barriers. Pumping below the cap or vapour barrier could be used to deplete the accumulation of CO2 in the vadose zone; • Since CO2 is a dense gas, it could be collected in subsurface trenches. Accumulated gas could be pumped from the trenches and released to the atmosphere or reinjected back underground; • Passive remediation techniques that rely only on diffusion and ‘barometric pumping’ could be used to slowly deplete one-time releases of CO2 into the vadose zone. This method will not be effective for managing ongoing releases because it is relatively slow; • Acidification of the soils from contact with CO2 could be remediated by irrigation and drainage. Alternatively, agricultural supplements such as lime could be used to neutralize the soil; Large releases of CO2 to the atmosphere • For releases inside a building or confined space, large fans could be used to rapidly dilute CO2 to safe levels; • For large releases spread out over a large area, dilution from natural atmospheric mixing (wind) will be the only practical method for diluting the CO2; • For ongoing leakage in established areas, risks of exposure to high concentrations of CO2 in confined spaces (e.g. cellar around a wellhead) or during periods of very low wind, fans could be used to keep the rate of air circulation high enough to ensure adequate dilution. Accumulation of CO2 in indoor environments with chronic low- level leakage • Slow releases into structures can be eliminated by using techniques that have been developed for controlling release of radon and volatile organic compounds into buildings. The two primary methods for managing indoor releases are basement/substructure venting or pressurization. Both would have the effect of diluting the CO2 before it enters the indoor environment (Gadgil et al., 1994; Fischer et al., 1996). Accumulation in surface water • Shallow surface water bodies that have significant turnover (shallow lakes) or turbulence (streams) will quickly release dissolved CO2 back into the atmosphere; • For deep, stably stratified lakes, active systems for venting gas accumulations have been developed and applied at Lake Nyos and Monoun in Cameroon (http://perso.wanadoo.fr/mhalb/nyos/).PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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