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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 279 ExECutivE SummARy Captured CO2 could be deliberately injected into the ocean at great depth, where most of it would remain isolated from the atmosphere for centuries. CO2 can be transported via pipeline or ship for release in the ocean or on the sea floor. There have been small-scale field experiments and 25 years of theoretical, laboratory, and modelling studies of intentional ocean storage of CO2, but ocean storage has not yet been deployed or thoroughly tested. expected close to injection points or CO2 lakes. Chronic effects may set in with small degrees of long-term CO2 accumulation, such as might result far from an injection site, however, long-term chronic effects have not been studied in deep-sea organisms. The increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations due to anthropogenic emissions has resulted in the oceans taking up CO2 at a rate of about 7 GtCO2yr-1 (2 GtCyr-1). Over the past 200 years the oceans have taken up 500 GtCO2 from the atmosphere out of 1300 GtCO2 total anthropogenic emissions. Anthropogenic CO2 resides primarily in the upper ocean and has thus far resulted in a decrease of pH of about 0.1 at the ocean surface with virtually no change in pH deep in the oceans. Models predict that the oceans will take up most CO2 released to the atmosphere over several centuries as CO2 is dissolved at the ocean surface and mixed with deep ocean waters. CO2 effects on marine organisms will have ecosystem consequences; however, no controlled ecosystem experiments have been performed in the deep ocean. Thus, only a preliminary assessment of potential ecosystem effects can be given. It is expected that ecosystem consequences will increase with increasing CO2 concentration, but no environmental thresholds have been identified. It is also presently unclear, how species and ecosystems would adapt to sustained, elevated CO2 levels. The Earth's oceans cover over 70% of the Earth's surface with an average depth of about 3,800 metres; hence, there is no practical physical limit to the amount of anthropogenic CO2 that could be placed in the ocean. However, the amount that is stored in the ocean on the millennial time scale depends on oceanic equilibration with the atmosphere. Over millennia, CO2 injected into the oceans at great depth will approach approximately the same equilibrium as if it were released to the atmosphere. Sustained atmospheric CO2 concentrations in the range of 350 to 1000 ppmv imply that 2,300 ± 260 to 10,700 ± 1,000 Gt of anthropogenic CO2 will eventually reside in the ocean. For water column and sea floor release, capture and compression/liquefaction are thought to be the dominant cost factors. Transport (i.e., piping, and shipping) costs are expected to be the next largest cost component and scale with proximity to the deep ocean. The costs of monitoring, injection nozzles etc. are expected to be small in comparison. Analyses of ocean observations and models agree that injected CO2 will be isolated from the atmosphere for several hundreds of years and that the fraction retained tends to be larger with deeper injection. Additional concepts to prolong CO2 retention include forming solid CO2 hydrates and liquid CO2 lakes on the sea floor, and increasing CO2 solubility by, for example, dissolving mineral carbonates. Over centuries, ocean mixing results in loss of isolation of injected CO2 and exchange with the atmosphere. This would be gradual from large regions of the ocean. There are no known mechanisms for sudden or catastrophic release of injected CO2. Several different global and regional treaties on the law of the sea and marine environment could be relevant to intentional release of CO2 into the ocean but the legal status of intentional carbon storage in the ocean has not yet been adjudicated. Injection up to a few GtCO2 would produce a measurable change in ocean chemistry in the region of injection, whereas injection of hundreds of GtCO2 would eventually produce measurable change over the entire ocean volume. 6.1 introduction and background 6.1.1 Intentional storage of CO2 in the ocean This report assesses what is known about intentional storage of carbon dioxide in the ocean by inorganic strategies that could be applied at industrial scale. Various technologies have been envisioned to enable and increase ocean CO2 storage (Figure 6.1). One class of options involves storing a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide that has been captured and compressed. This CO2 can be placed on a ship, injected directly into the ocean, or deposited on the sea floor. CO2 loaded on ships could either be dispersed from a towed pipe or transported to fixed platforms feeding a CO2 lake on the sea floor. Such CO2 lakes must be Experiments show that added CO2 can harm marine organisms. Effects of elevated CO2 levels have mostly been studied on time scales up to several months in individual organisms that live near the ocean surface. Observed phenomena include reduced rates of calcification, reproduction, growth, circulatory oxygen supply and mobility as well as increased mortality over time. In some organisms these effects are seen in response to small additions of CO2. Immediate mortality is Chemical and biological monitoring of an injection project, including observations of the spatial and temporal evolution of the resulting CO2 plume, would help evaluate the amount of materials released, the retention of CO2, and some of the potential environmental effects. Dissolving mineral carbonates, if found practical, could cause stored carbon to be retained in the ocean for 10,000 years, minimize changes in ocean pH and CO2 partial pressure, and may avoid the need for prior separation of CO2. Large amounts of limestone and materials handling would be required for this approach. It is not known whether the public will accept the deliberate storage of CO2 in the ocean as part of a climate change mitigation strategy. Deep ocean storage could help reduce the impact of CO2 emissions on surface ocean biology but at the expense of effects on deep-ocean biology.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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