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300 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Box 6.5 Natural analogues and Earth history. There are several examples of natural systems with strong CO2 sources in the ocean, and fluid pools toxic to marine life that may be examined to better understand possible physical and biological effects of active CO2 injection. Most natural environments that are heavily enriched in CO2 (or toxic substances) host life forms that have adapted to these special conditions on evolutionary time scales. During Earth history much of the oceans may have hosted life forms specialized on elevated pCO2, which are now extinct. This limits the use of natural analogues or Earth history to predict and generalize effects of CO2 injection on most extant marine life. • Venting of carbon dioxide-rich fluids: Hydrothermal vents, often associated with mid-ocean-ridge systems, often release CO2 rich fluids into the ocean and can be used to study CO2 behaviour and effects. For example, Sakai et al. (1990) observed buoyant hydrate forming fluids containing 86–91% CO2 (with H2S, and methane etc. making up the residual) released from the sea floor at 1335–1550 m depth from a hydrothermal vent field. These fluids would be similar to a heavily contaminated industrial CO2 source. These fluids arise from the reaction of sea water with acid and intermediate volcanic rocks at high temperature; they are released into sea water of 3.8°C. A buoyant hydrate-coated mass forms at the sea floor, which then floats upwards dissolving into the ocean water. Sea floor venting of aqueous fluids, rich in CO2 and low in pH (3.5–4.4), is also to be found in some hydrothermal systems (Massoth et al., 1989; Karl, 1995). Near volcanic vents, deep-sea ecosystems can be sustained by a geochemical input of chemical energy and CO2. While there has been extensive investigation of these sites, and the plumes emanating from them, this has not yet been in the context of analogues for industrial CO2 storage effects. Such an investigation would show how a fauna has evolved to adapt to a high-CO2 environment; it would not show how biota adapted to normal ocean water would respond to increased CO2 concentrations.* • Deep saline brine pools: The ocean floor is known to have a large number of highly saline brine pools that are anoxic and toxic to marine life. The salty brines freely dissolve, but mixing into the overlying ocean waters is impeded by the stable stratification imparted by the high density of the dissolving brines. The Red Sea contains many such brine pools (Degens and Ross, 1969; Anschutz et al., 1999), some up to 60 km2 in area, filled with high-temperature hyper-saline, anoxic, brine. Animals cannot survive in these conditions, and the heat and salt that are transported across the brine-seawater interface form a plume into the surrounding bottom water. Hydrothermal sources resupply brine at the bottom of the brine pool (Anschutz and Blanc, 1996). The Gulf of Mexico contains numerous brine pools. The largest known is the Orca Basin, where a 90 km2 brine pool in 2250 m water depth is fed by drainage from exposed salt deposits. The salt is toxic to life, but biogeochemical cycles operate at the interface with the overlying ocean (van Cappellen et al., 1998). The Mediterranean also contains numerous large hypersaline basins (MEDRIFF Consortium, 1995). Taken together these naturally occurring brine pools provide examples of vast volumes of soluble, dense, fluids, hostile to marine life, on the sea floor. The number, volume, and extent of these pools exceed those for scenarios for CO2 lake formation yet considered. There has been little study of the impact of the plumes emanating from these sources. These could be examined to yield information that may be relevant to environmental impacts of a lake of CO2 on the ocean floor. • Changes over geological time: In certain times in Earth’s geological past the oceans may have contained more dissolved inorganic carbon and/or have had a lower pH. There is evidence of large-scale changes in calcifying organism distributions in the oceans in the geological record that may be related in changes in carbonate mineral saturation states in the surface ocean. For example, Barker and Elderfield (2002) demonstrated that glacial-interglacial changes in the shell weights of several species of planktonic foraminifera are negatively correlated with atmospheric CO2 concentrations, suggesting a causal relationship. Cambrian CO2 levels (i.e., about 500 million years ago) were as high as 5000 ppm and mean values decreased progressively thereafter (see. Dudley, 1998; Berner, 2002). Two to three times higher than extant ocean calcium levels ensured that calcification of, for example, coral reefs was enabled in paleo-oceans despite high CO2 levels (Arp et al., 2001). High performance animal life appeared in the sea only after atmospheric CO2 began to diminish. The success of these creatures may have depended on the reduction of atmospheric CO2 levels (reviewed by Pörtner et al., 2004, 2005). CO2 is also thought to have been a potential key factor in the late Permian/Triassic mass extinction, which affected corals, articulate brachiopods, bryozoans, and echinoderms to a larger extent than molluscs, arthropods and chordates (Knoll et al., 1996; Berner, 2002; Bambach et al., 2002). Pörtner et al. (2004) hypothesized that this may be due to the corrosive effect of CO2 on heavily calcified skeletons. CO2 excursions would have occurred in the context of large climate oscillations. Effects of temperature oscillations, hypoxia events and CO2 excursions probably contributed to extinctions (Pörtner et al., 2005, see section 6.7.3).PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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